Front

Approximation (Paraphrase)

Back

Use of a single target-language vocabulary item or structure, which the

learner knows is not correct, but which shares enough semantic features

in common with the desired item to satisfy the speaker (e.g., 'pipe' for

'warerpipe').

Front

Word Coinage (Paraphrase)

Back

The learner makes up a new word in order to communicate a desired

concept ( e.g., 'airball' for 'balloon').

Front

Circumlocution (Paraphrase)

Back

The learner describes the characteristics or elements of the object or

action instead of using the appropriate TL structure ('She is, uh, smoking

something. I don't know what's its name. That's, uh, Persian, and we use

in Turkey, a lot of').

Front

Literal Translation (Transfer)

Back

The 'learner translates word for word from the native language (e.g., 'He ·

invites him to drink' for 'They toast one another').

Front

Language Switch (Transfer)

Back

The learner uses the NL term without bothering to translate (e.g., 'balon'

for 'balloon' or 'tirtil' for 'caterpillar')

Front

Appeal for Assistance (Transfer)

Back

The learner asks for the correct term or structure (e.g., "What is this?") .

Front

Mime (Transfer)

Back

The learner uses nonverbal strategies in place of a meaning structure ( e.g.,

clapping one's hands to illustrate. applause).

Front

Topic Avoidance (Avoidance)

Back

Occurs when the learner simply does not talk about concepts for which

the-vocabulary ,;ir other meaning structure is not known.

Front

Message Abandonment (Avoidance)

Back

Occurs when the learner begins to continue due to lack of meaning

structure, and stops mid-utterance.