Week 6 Rise of American Funeral Behavior

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

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​Week 6

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Native American Death Beliefs

  • The United States is home to 574 federally recognized tribal nations and villages, each with its own unique traditions, beliefs, and practices surrounding death.

  • Death is commonly viewed as a natural part of life, and many customs are intended to prepare the soul for its spiritual journey.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• • Practices vary widely by tribe, but may include:

    • Painting the face of the deceased

    • Washing the body with yucca before burial

    • Tying feathers to the head during prayer ceremonies

    • Dressing the deceased in full regalia and jewelry, including moccasins for the journey to the next world

• Views on Death: Fear vs. Acceptance

  While many Native American tribes share a belief in death as a natural part of life, attitudes toward death can differ significantly among tribes.

  • Some tribes embrace death as a peaceful transition to the spirit world.

  • Others, particularly Southwestern tribes like the Apache and Navajo, may fear the spirits of the deceased, believing they could harbor resentment toward the living and bring harm.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Impact of Colonization on Indigenous Populations

  Following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492, Indigenous populations in North America faced catastrophic loss.

  • A 2019 study estimates that up to 90% of the Indigenous population—approximately 55 million people—died as a result of violence, displacement, and disease.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• • European colonists introduced deadly illnesses such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, to which Native communities had no immunity.

  • These epidemics, combined with systemic violence, led to one of the most profound population declines in human history.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Burial Customs in Native American Traditions

  While customs vary across tribal nations, many share a belief in a spirit world—often referred to as Wakan Tanka—where the deceased are free from pain and suffering.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Burial and funeral practices differ by tribe, with some examples including:

  • Cremation: Believed to aid the spirit’s journey to the afterlife.

    • Practiced by the Odawa and many other tribes.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Burial and funeral practices differ by tribe, with some examples including:

  • Mortuary Poles: Cremated remains are placed inside carved totem poles as a form of remembrance.

    • Practiced by the Haida and Tlingit tribes of the Pacific Northwest.

• Traditional Burial Practices

  • Tree or Scaffold Burial:
    Practiced by tribes such as the Sioux, Ute, and Navajo, this custom involves placing the deceased on a raised platform or in a tree. This elevates the body closer to the sky, symbolizing spiritual ascent. Over time, nature and animals return the body to the earth, completing the life cycle.

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Traditional Burial Practices

  • Earth Burial:
    Also common among the Sioux, this more conventional practice involves burying the deceased in the ground, often accompanied by personal belongings to assist in the afterlife

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• American Colonial Funeral Practices

  • Origin of customs

    • American Colonies were settled by English-speaking people who were seeking fortune, fame, freedom of religious organization, and a decent human existence.

    • They brought with them their beliefs, their skills, their arts and crafts.

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Foundations of Early American Funeral Practices

  • Virginia Colony

    • Founded in 1607 at Jamestown

    • Marked the beginning of English colonial influence on funeral customs in North America

  • Massachusetts Bay Colony

    • Founded in 1630

    • Deeply shaped by religious ideals, particularly Protestantism and Calvinism

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• • Religious Influence

    • Emphasis on the sovereignty of God, the sinfulness of humanity, and predestination

    • These beliefs influenced early funeral rituals, focusing on humility, simplicity, and preparation for eternal judgment

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Colonial Burial Practices

  • Simple and Dignified Rituals

    • In New England, funerals emphasized modesty and reverence, avoiding elaborate ceremonies viewed as "Popish Errors" (i.e., too closely aligned with Catholic traditions).

    • Early burials typically included a brief prayer and quiet attendance at the graveside.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• • Cultural View of Death

    • Death was seen as an inevitable and common part of life.

    • Large colonial families often faced the early loss of children, the death of women during childbirth, and frequent exposure to violence from conflicts, including Indian raids and public executions.

    • Epidemics such as smallpox and influenza also contributed to high mortality rates.

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• The Growing Social Role of Mourning

  • Colonial Funerals Became Major Social Events

    • Over time, funerals in colonial America evolved into significant community gatherings.

  • Use of Mourning Gifts

    • Families distributed gloves, rings, scarves, and other tokens to attendees.

    • The cost of these gifts often exceeded the actual funeral expenses—comparable to high-end funerals today.

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Alcohol Consumption

  • Serving alcoholic beverages was customary and often made up the largest portion of funeral costs.

  • Financial Strain on Widows

    • These growing social expectations placed a heavy financial burden on colonial widows, who were often responsible for covering funeral expenses.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Funeral Procession in Colonial America

  • Processions Were Held on Foot

    • Mourners walked solemnly to the gravesite, often in silence.

    • The casket was carried by hand or placed on a bier, a wooden frame or cart.

  • Resting Points Along the Route

    • Designated stops allowed pallbearers to rest and for the community to reflect during the procession.

  • Community Involvement in Burial

    • In towns without a designated sexton, local townspeople took on the responsibility of digging the grave, reinforcing the communal nature of early funerals.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Funeral Procession in Colonial America

  • Processions Were Held on Foot

    • Mourners walked solemnly to the gravesite, often in silence.

    • The casket was carried by hand or placed on a bier, a wooden frame or cart.

  • Resting Points Along the Route

    • Designated stops allowed pallbearers to rest and for the community to reflect during the procession.

  • Community Involvement in Burial

    • In towns without a designated sexton, local townspeople took on the responsibility of digging the grave, reinforcing the communal nature of early funerals.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Social Change in the Later Colonial Period: Influence of the Revolution

  • Urbanization: As cities grew, more people moved into urban areas, leading to shifts in lifestyle and standards of living.

  • Reduced Imports from England: In response to revolutionary sentiment, colonies began limiting imports from England—including traditional mourning supplies.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Social Change in the Later Colonial Period: Influence of the Revolution

  • Changes in Mourning Customs:

    • The practice of distributing gloves, rings, and scarves at funerals declined.

    • Instead, men wore black crepe armbands, and women used black ribbons as symbols of mourning.

  • Sumptuary Laws: These laws restricted displays of mourning, including the wearing of special attire, giving of mourning gifts, and serving of alcohol at funerals.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Early American Funeral Providers

  The Tradesman Undertaker

  • The term "undertaker" originally referred to someone who “undertook” the responsibilities of funeral arrangements.

  • Many early undertakers were skilled tradespeople who transitioned into funeral work.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Craftsmen in Funeral Service

  • As cities grew and the material wealth of townspeople increased, the role of the undertaker became more formal and significant.

  • A wide range of tradespeople entered the field, including:

    • Furniture Upholsterers – notably, the first documented were women!

    • Cabinet Makers & Coffin Makers

    • Furniture Makers

    • Livery Stable Keepers

    • Dentists

    • Hardware Store Owners

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Early Providers of Personal Services

  • Nurses and Midwives Provided essential care in homes and communities.

  • Death Care as Personal Service

    • Specialized women, known as "layers-out of the dead," prepared bodies for burial.

    • This role became a recognized occupation in many major U.S. cities by the late 1700s.

    • These women were the forerunners of the modern undertaker profession.

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Role of the church sexton

  • 19th Century Sextons not only had the conventional duties of tolling the bell and digging the grave, they also were performing the following duties;

    • Laying out the body

    • Directing the procession

    • Furnishing the funeral merchandise and paraphernalia

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Municipal Officers in Early American Funeral Practices

  • Inviters to Funerals: A unique role in colonial America, these individuals were personally appointed—often by the municipality—to visit and formally invite expected attendees to funerals.

  • Town Undertakers: Officially appointed by the mayor, town undertakers managed key aspects of the funeral process.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Responsibilities Included:

  • Preparing and laying out the body

  • Coffining the deceased

  • Transporting the body to the burial site

  • Providing mourning paraphernalia

    Evolution of the Funeral Director (Early 19th Century):
    By the early 1800s, the "Funeral-Undertaker" had begun performing many of the core functions of today’s funeral directors, marking a pivotal shift in the professionalization of funeral services.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Development of Coffins, Burial Cases, Caskets, and Burial Vaults (Outer Burial Containers)

  Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Coffin Burial

  • The 17th-century migration from England to Colonial America brought skilled tradesmen, including cabinetmakers and carpenters, many of whom applied their skills to coffin-making.

  • Some craftsmen transitioned to full-time coffin production.

  • Coffins were produced locally in the Colonies, while hardware and fittings—known as "coffin-furnishing"—continued to be imported from England until after 1800.

  • The abundance of skilled labor made it unnecessary to import fully constructed coffins from England.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Materials Used

  Hardwoods:
  Cherry, Oak, Hickory, Maple, Walnut, Mahogany

  Softwoods:
  Pine, Cedar, Redwood, Spruce, Fir

  Other Materials:
  Some caskets were made of lead or lined with lead

  Design:
  Octagonal (eight-sided) shape

  Furnishing Undertakers:
  Provided funeral services and supplied other undertakers with equipment and paraphernalia

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• The Rise of Early Coffin Shops and Warehouses

  • Coffin shops and warehouses emerged after the War of 1812, with the first appearing in New York.

  • Early establishments varied widely in function, type, and design.

  • Over time, improvements were made in functionality, style, and materials.

  • Consumers began to prioritize variety and aesthetic choice rather than settling for custom-built, on-demand coffins.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• The Rise of Early Coffin Shops and Warehouses

  • Increased emphasis was placed on utility and durability.

  • A growing concern for grave protection led to innovations aimed at preventing grave robbery.

  • The design focus shifted from somber and utilitarian to more artistic and beautiful expressions.

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Fisk Metallic Coffin (Patented 1848)

  • Form-fitting, airtight design to improve body preservation

  • Glass viewing plate allowed the face to remain visible

  • Anthropoid (human-shaped) form reintroduced in coffin design

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Fisk Metallic Coffin (Patented 1848)

  • Manufacturer's Claims:

    • Delayed decomposition for postponed burial

    • Contained odor and fluids to prevent disease spread

    • Maintained a lifelike appearance of the deceased

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

Introduction of the Metallic Burial Casket

• Ogee Design Introduced: Featured an “S”-shaped curvature to the casket cap, improving both function and aesthetics.

• Purpose: Reduced excess space and overall weight, especially in metal caskets, by using less material.

• First Documented Use: William Cooley, Boston, MA, 1849 – recognized as the origin of the American casket.

• Shift in Focus: Marked a transition from simply enclosing the body to emphasizing the presentation of the deceased.

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

Increase in the Manufacture of Metallic Burial Cases

Manufacturers’ Claims:

• Simple and “chaste” design

• Airtight construction

• Prevents the spread of disease

• Arrests decomposition

• Essential for safe transportation of remains

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

Increase in the Manufacture of Metallic Burial Cases

Designs:

• Shoulder Casket (1857)

• Modern Rectangular Casket (1860)

Materials Used:

• Iron

• Zinc

• Steel

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Cloth burial cases

  • Construction methods and materials

    • Wood construction , covered with fine cloth, fine hardware, and glass face plates.

    • Patented by Samuel Stein, Stein Manufacturing Company.

  • Impact on coffin/casket manufacturing

    • Samuel Stein was the first to produce a line of cloth-covered caskets and he was the first to place a casket in a showroom.

• ​Style “E” state casket

  • Covered with black broadcloth Silver metal mountings, flat top with a French glass plate

  • President Ulysses S. Grant was buried in this Casket

• Coffins Equipped with Life Signals

  Fear of Premature Burial
  Before modern medical advances, it was difficult to confirm death with certainty, leading to widespread fear of being buried alive.

  Cultural References
  This fear is reflected in phrases like “Saved by the Bell” and “Dead Ringer.”

  Innovative Safety Measures
  To address these concerns, some coffins were designed with safety features that could alert people if the occupant was still alive and provide means to survive underground until rescue.

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

Rise of American Funeral Behavior

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

Burial Vaults (Outer Burial Containers)

• Materials Used:

  • Cement

  • Metal

  • Wood

  Design Examples:

  • Cement Mold (1872)

  • Boyd Metal Grave Vault (1879)

  • Burial Safe (1878)

  • Metal-Lined Wood Mold

​Rise of American Funeral Behavior

• Key Principles for Burial Practices

  • Protect graves from disturbance or tampering

  • Ensure structural stability to prevent grave collapse

  • Influence on current cemetery standards

  Today, most cemeteries mandate the use of outer burial containers to maintain grave integrity and support long-term cemetery maintenance.

Match

Match the correct term with the best definition...

• Funeral Undertaker

• Furnishing undertaker

• Inviter to funerals

• Layers out of the dead

• Ogee design

 provided services of organizing and facilitating funeral details as an

occupation

provided supplies and merchandise (i.e. door badges, carriages, etc.) to funeral undertakers

 called personally

 upon those expected to attend funerals; often a municipal appointment.

specialty practiced by women in many larger US cities by the end of the 18th  century

introduced to square sided metal caskets in order to reduce the excess space

and weight,

•  provided services of organizing and facilitating funeral details as an

  occupation

• provided supplies and merchandise (i.e. door badges, carriages, etc.) to funeral undertakers

•  called personally

   upon those expected to attend funerals; often a municipal appointment.

• specialty practiced by women in many larger US cities by the end of the 18th  century

• introduced to square sided metal caskets in order to reduce the excess space

  and weight,

Match

Match the correct term with the best definition...

• Anthropoid

• Burial case

• Casket

• Coffin

• Fisk Metallic Coffin

human shaped; some early coffins were described as arthropodal shaped.

generic term used in America to designate all burial receptacles as new variations

of the coffin were

from the French term ‘casse’ meaning 'jewel box' or container for something valuable

utilitarian container designed to hold human remains,

often anthropoidal in shape.

patented in 1848 as form-fitting, airtight metallic coffin designed for

preservation.

• human shaped; some early coffins were described as arthropodal shaped.

• generic term used in America to designate all burial receptacles as new variations

  of the coffin were

• from the French term ‘casse’ meaning 'jewel box' or container for something valuable

• utilitarian container designed to hold human remains,

  often anthropoidal in shape.

• patented in 1848 as form-fitting, airtight metallic coffin designed for

  preservation.