Psych. Ch. 4 pgs 112-118

Understanding
Classical Conditioning

October 8, 2024

Introduction to Learning

❖ Learning is defined as the relatively permanent

change in knowledge or behavior that is the

result of experience.

❖ This encompasses not only the skills acquired

through practice, such as studying for an

exam, but also broader psychological
changes, including the development of

disorders like Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.

❖ Learning is a crucial human capacity, enabling

us to adapt and respond effectively to our

environment, avoiding dangers and navigating

social interactions.

Multiple Choice

Learning is a crucial human capacity, enabling us to adapt and respond effectively to our environment, avoiding dangers and navigating social interactions.

• True

• False

Pioneers of Behaviorism

• John B. Watson (on the right) and B. F. Skinner (on the left) were

major contributors to behaviorism, a theory of learning that
focuses solely on observable actions rather than thoughts or
feelings.
For behaviorists, learning happens through conditioning, where
people learn to react to certain triggers.
Watson's research was crucial in establishing behaviorism,
stressing that we should look at what we can see and measure
instead of what's happening in our minds.
Skinner built on Watson's ideas with his studies on operant
conditioning, which showed how rewards and punishments can
influence and change behavior.

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For behaviorists, learning happens through ​

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, where
people learn to react to certain ​

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.

Concept of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental associative learning process identified by Ivan
Pavlov, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally
produces a behavior.

Pavlov's experiments with dogs revealed that dogs began to salivate not just at the sight of
food, but also when they heard a sound that had been paired with food delivery during
training.

The experiment demonstrated that after several pairings of the sound (neutral stimulus) with
food (unconditioned stimulus), the sound alone could elicit salivation (conditioned
response).

This process illustrates how learning occurs through association, highlighting the
importance of stimuli in behavior modification.

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Pavlov's experiments with dogs revealed that dogs began to ​

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not just at the sight of ​

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, but also when they heard a ​

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that had been paired with food delivery during ​

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.

Pavlov's Experiment on Conditioning

Pavlov's Observations

In the early 20th century, Ivan
Pavlov observed that dogs
salivated when lab technicians
entered the room, anticipating
food. This led to his experiment on
conditioning.

Demonstrating Conditioning

Pavlov paired a sound with food
delivery, causing dogs to salivate at
the sound alone after several trials,
demonstrating classical conditioning.

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Pavlov paired a sound with food delivery, causing dogs to salivate at the sound alone after several trials, demonstrating classical ​

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Key Terms in
Classical Conditioning

Neutral stimulus is something that does not

naturally produce a response. In Pavlov’s

experiment, the sound of the tone served as

the initial neutral stimulus.

The unconditioned stimulus (US) triggers a naturally

occurring response, known as the unconditioned

response (UR). Examples include sneezing (UR) to

pepper (US) and shivering (UR) to cold (US).

Conditioned stimulus (CS) is a formerly

neutral stimulus that, after association with

the US, evokes a similar response. The

conditioned response (CR) is the acquired

response to the CS.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and
Response (UR)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and
Response (CR)

Match

Match the vocabulary terms to their definitions.

• Neutral stimulus is something that does not naturally produce a response. In Pavlov’s experiment, the sound of the tone served as the initial neutral stimulus.

• The unconditioned stimulus (US) triggers a naturally occurring response, known as the unconditioned response (UR). Examples include sneezing (UR) to pepper (US) and shivering (UR) to cold (US).

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) is a formerly neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, evokes a similar response. The conditioned response (CR) is the acquired response to the CS.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Response

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Response (

• Neutral Stimulus (NS)

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Response

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Response (

Illustrating
Classical
Conditioning

Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning by associating a
neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in dogs,
leading to a conditioned response.

The unconditioned stimulus (food) triggers an unconditioned
response (salivation), while a neutral stimulus (bell) becomes
a conditioned stimulus after association.

Initially, dogs salivated only at the sight of food, but after
several pairings of the bell with food, they began to salivate
at the sound alone.

Pavlov's Experiment
Overview

Key Components of
Conditioning

The Conditioning
Process

Persistence and Extinction

Acquisition Phase

The CS (controlled stimulus) and the US
(uncontrolled stimulus) are repeatedly paired
together and behavior increases.

Extinction Process

The CS is repeatedly presented alone, and
the behavior slowly decreases

Spontaneous Recovery

After a pause, when the CS is again
presented alone, the behavior may again
occur and then again show extinction.

Learning Persistence

Despite extinction, the effects of
conditioning are never entirely erased; if
conditioning is reattempted, the subject
will learn the associations faster than
initially.

Stimulus Generalization vs. Discrimination

Stimulus Generalization

•Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original
conditioned stimulus.

•For instance, Pavlov's dogs salivated to sounds similar to the original tone that had been
paired with food.

•This phenomenon has evolutionary significance, as it helps organisms respond to potentially
harmful stimuli that are similar to known threats.

•Research by Lewicki (1985) showed that students generalized their negative responses to a
similar-looking experimenter after a prior negative experience.

Stimulus Discrimination

•Stimulus discrimination is the ability to respond differently to stimuli that are similar but not
identical.

•Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate only to the specific tone that had been associated with food,
ignoring other similar tones.

•Discrimination allows organisms to differentiate between harmless and harmful stimuli,
enhancing survival.

•For example, if a person learns that purple berries do not cause sickness after trying them,
they can distinguish them from red berries that may be harmful.

Multiple Choice

Research by Lewicki (1985) showed that students generalized their negative responses to a similar-looking experimenter after a prior negative experience.

• True

• False

Role of
Second-Order
Conditioning

Second-order conditioning occurs when an existing conditioned stimulus serves as an unconditioned

stimulus for a pairing with a new conditioned stimulus. For instance, in one of Pavlov’s studies, he first

conditioned the dogs to salivate to a sound, and then repeatedly paired a new conditioned stimulus, a

black square, with the sound. Eventually, the dogs would salivate at the sight of the black square alone,

even though it had never been directly associated with food.

In everyday life, secondary conditioners include our attractions to or fears of things that stand for or

remind us of something else. For example, we might feel good when hearing a particular song that is

associated with a romantic moment, or we may develop a fear of certain shapes or colors that remind

us of a negative experience.

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Second-order conditioning occurs when an existing ​

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stimulus serves as an ​

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stimulus for a pairing with a new conditioned stimulus.

The Importance of Nature in Learning

certain responses are automatic and specific to our species, like how we react to danger.

Our evolutionary background means we are wired to learn some things more easily than
others. For instance, it's easier for us to develop a fear of dogs rather than a fear of small
children, even though both can be unpredictable and noisy.

Conditioning helps living beings form expectations, which prepare them for both positive and
negative situations. For example, if an animal tries a new food and then gets sick afterward, it
learns to link the smell of that food with feeling unwell. This is called taste aversion, where an
organism learns to avoid a food after just one bad experience.

The fact that all members of a species can develop these associations supports the idea that
it's a result of evolution.

Research by John Garcia showed that taste conditioning is particularly strong; rats learned to
steer clear of tastes they associated with getting sick, even if the sickness came hours later.
This highlights that genetics plays a significant role in how we learn, as some associations are
easier for us to grasp due to our biological makeup, a concept known as biological
preparedness.

Evolutionary Benefits of Conditioning

Survival Mechanism Through Conditioning

•Conditioning allows organisms to develop expectations about their environment.

•Taste aversion exemplifies a quick learning process to avoid harmful foods.

•This one-time learning helps organisms avoid foods that made them sick.

Garcia's Research on Conditioned Taste Aversion

•John Garcia discovered that rats quickly learned to avoid tastes associated with illness.

•Taste conditioning was powerful, even if the illness occurred hours later.

•Garcia's work showed that some associations are easier to learn due to evolutionary
preparedness.

Classical Conditioning and Phobias

Understanding Phobias through
Classical Conditioning

•Classical conditioning explains the learning of phobias, which are strong and
irrational fears of specific objects, activities, or situations.

•People are biologically more prepared to develop phobias toward certain
stimuli, such as snakes and spiders, due to evolutionary factors.

•For example, John Watson's work with Little Albert demonstrated how a
neutral stimulus (a rat) paired with a loud noise (an unconditioned stimulus)
resulted in fear (a conditioned response).

•This biological preparedness means individuals are more likely to develop
associations with threats that have historically posed survival risks.

•In modern contexts, individuals with PTSD may develop phobias through
similar conditioning processes, where neutral stimuli become associated
with traumatic experiences.

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For example, John Watson's work with Little Albert demonstrated how a ​

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(a rat) paired with a ​

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(an unconditioned stimulus) resulted in ​

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(a conditioned response).

Classical Conditioning and PTSD

Role of Classical Conditioning in PTSD

•
PTSD is a severe anxiety disorder that can develop
after exposure to a fearful event.

•
It occurs when individuals develop strong
associations between situational factors and
traumatic events.

•
For example, military uniforms or sounds become
associated with the trauma of war.

Effects on Individuals

•
Exposure to stimuli associated with trauma can
trigger severe anxiety responses.

•
Individuals with PTSD show slower extinction to
classical conditioning, indicating strong
associations with the trauma.

•
Neural activity in the amygdala plays a crucial role
in the conditioning process related to PTSD.

Neuroscience Behind PTSD

PTSD develops because the emotions experienced
during the event have produced neural activity in the
amygdala and created strong conditioned learning. In
addition to the strong conditioning that people with
PTSD experience, they also show slower extinction to
classical conditioning (Milad et al., 2009).
In short, people with PTSD have developed very
strong associations with the events surrounding the
trauma and are also slow to show extinction to the
conditioned stimulus.