Psych. Ch. 4 pgs 120-126

Operant
Conditioning
Overview

​Psychology
Ch. 4 pages 120-126

Introduction to
Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behavior is shaped

and maintained by its consequences. Unlike classical conditioning, where

an organism learns to associate new stimuli with natural responses, operant

conditioning focuses on how the consequences of a behavior influence the

likelihood of that behavior occurring again. For example, a dog rolls over on

command because it has been praised for doing so in the past,

demonstrating that the organism learns from the consequences of its own

actions.

Overview


Thorndike and Skinner's Research

Edward L. Thorndike was the first scientist to systematically study operant conditioning. His
research involved placing cats in a puzzle box, where they learned to escape by pressing a lever
to receive a reward, typically food. This led to his development of the law of effect, stating that
responses creating a pleasant outcome are more likely to occur again. B.F. Skinner expanded on
Thorndike's ideas by creating the Skinner box, a controlled environment to study behavior. In
his experiments, a hungry rat learned to press a lever to receive food, demonstrating the
principle that behavior is influenced by its consequences and reinforcing the actions that result
in rewards.

•Research


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The Skinner Box Experiment

•B. F. Skinner designed a controlled environment known as a
Skinner Box to study operant conditioning. The box is
spacious enough for a rodent or bird and includes a bar or
key that the organism can press or peck to obtain food or
water.

•In the experiment, a hungry rat is placed inside the box,
where it explores the environment. Initially, the rat scurries
around, but eventually, it presses a lever that releases food
pellets, demonstrating the mechanism of reinforcement.

•Skinner observed that with repeated trials, the rat learned to
press the lever more quickly as it associated the action with
the reward of food, illustrating the principle of the law of
effect that Thorndike previously established.

•The Skinner Box experiment highlighted the significance of
reinforcement in behavior modification, showcasing how
behavior could be shaped through consequences.

Overview of the Skinner Box Experiment

Research


Multiple Choice

What principle did Thorndike's research lead to?

• Law of gravity

• Law of relativity

• Law of motion

• Law of effect

Multiple Choice

What does operant conditioning demonstrate about an organism?

• It learns from the consequences of its actions

• It learns by observing others

• It learns through memorization

• It learns by instinct

Multiple Choice

What does the rat learn to associate with pressing the lever in the Skinner Box?

• Food reward

• sound

• light

• Water

Reinforcement and Punishment

Operant Conditioning


Multiple Choice

What does positive punishment involve?

• Removing an unpleasant stimulus

• Presenting or adding an unpleasant stimulus

• Reducing a pleasant stimulus

• Adding a pleasant stimulus

Multiple Choice

What is the description of positive reinforcement?

• Add or increase a pleasant stimulus

• Reduce or remove an unpleasant stimulus

• Present or add an unpleasant stimulus

• Reduce or remove a pleasant stimulus

Reinforcement Schedules

In continuous reinforcement, the

desired response is reinforced every

time it occurs. For instance, when a

dog rolls over, it gets a biscuit. This

leads to fast learning but also rapid

extinction once the reinforcer is

removed.

In partial reinforcement, responses

are sometimes reinforced and

sometimes not, leading to slower

initial learning but greater resistance

to extinction. This reflects more

realistic behavior patterns.

The four types include: Fixed-ratio

(after a specific number of

responses), Variable-ratio (after an

average, unpredictable number of

responses), Fixed-interval (after a

specific amount of time), and

Variable-interval (after an average,

unpredictable amount of time).

Continuous Reinforcement

Partial Reinforcement

Types of Partial
Reinforcement Schedules

Operant Conditioning


Match

Match the following

• the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs.

• responses are sometimes reinforced and sometimes not, leading to slower initial learning but greater resistance to extinction.

• Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, varible-interval

Continuous Reinforcement

Partial Reinforcement

Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous Reinforcement

• Partial Reinforcement

• Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules

Figure: Reinforcement Schedules

Variable-Ratio Reinforcement Schedule

•
Slot machines exemplify a variable-ratio
reinforcement schedule, providing reinforcers
after an average but unpredictable number of
responses.

•
For instance, a slot machine may be
programmed to provide a win every 20 times
the user pulls the handle, on average, which
creates high rates of responding.

•
This unpredictability tends to produce
stronger responses than predictable schedules,
making variable-ratio schedules particularly
effective in maintaining behavior.

Reinforcement


Multiple Choice

What is an example of Variable-Ratio Reinforcement Schedule

• ATM

• coke machine

• slot machines

Creating Complex
Behaviors

Operant conditioning can be used to create

complex behaviors through the process of shaping,

which involves guiding behavior towards a desired

outcome by reinforcing successive approximations to

the final behavior. For instance, Skinner used this

technique extensively in his experiments. He could

train a rat to press a bar two times to receive food by

first providing food when the animal moved near the

bar. Once that behavior was learned, he would

reinforce only when the rat touched the bar, then only

when it pressed the bar, and finally, only when it

pressed the bar twice. This method allows for the

reinforcement of small improvements, ultimately

leading to the completion of complex tasks, such as a

dolphin performing a series of tricks in a show.

Operant Conditioning


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Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

•
Primary reinforcers include stimuli that are naturally preferred or enjoyed by the
organism, such as food, water, and relief from pain.

•
These reinforcers are biologically necessary for survival and are inherently rewarding.

•
For example, food is a primary reinforcer because it satisfies hunger, while water
alleviates thirst.

•
Secondary reinforcers, also called conditioned reinforcers, are neutral events that have
become associated with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning.

•
An example of a learned secondary reinforcer is the whistle given by an animal trainer,
which is linked to food over time.

•
Money is another everyday example of a secondary reinforcer, as it is used to buy
primary reinforcers like food and shelter.

Definition and Examples of
Primary Reinforcers

Definition and Examples of
Secondary Reinforcers

Reinforcement Concepts


Multiple Choice

Variable-Ratio Reinforcement Schedule

• money

• water

• praise

• a whistle

Multiple Choice

What is an example of secondary reinforcers?

• shelter

• food

• money

• water

Effectiveness of Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Advantages of Positive Reinforcement

•
Positive reinforcement creates a positive
relationship between the individual and the
person providing reinforcement, enhancing
motivation and engagement.

•
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a
behavior reoccurring, as it is associated with
pleasurable outcomes.

•
Using positive reinforcement fosters a supportive
environment that encourages learning and
cooperation.

Drawbacks of Punishment

•
Punishment can lead to negative feelings towards
the person administering it, fostering resentment
and creating an adversarial relationship.

•
Punishment may only lead to temporary changes
in behavior, as individuals might comply only to
avoid punishment rather than internalizing good
behavior.

•
Punishment can have unintended consequences,
such as modeling aggressive behavior and causing
anxiety that interferes with learning.

Operant Conditioning

Multiple Choice

What is a potential emotional consequence of punishment?

• Increased motivation.

• Enhanced learning.

• Anxiety that interferes with learning.

• Positive engagement.