Reading Exercise 3 / Passage 1: Competition and Cooperation

Competition was defined as a situation in which rewards are dispensed unequally on the basis of performance; cooperation, on the other hand, was defined as a situation in which rewards are distributed in a primarily equitable manner on the basis of mutual interactive behavior among individuals.

1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 1? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

• Unequal rewards for competition should be distributed equally to achieve cooperation.

• Earlier definitions of competition and cooperation described them in basically the same way.

• Competition and cooperation were seen as opposites, with rewards distributed equally to those who competed and unequally to those who cooperated.

• Competition was defined in terms of unequal distribution of rewards and cooperation in terms of equal distribution of rewards.

Researchers have found definitions of these two conditions based upon rewards inadequate, primarily due to the fact that definitions of these two concepts with reward distribution as the distinctive difference have depicted competition and cooperation as opposites.

2. 2. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in

   paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

• It does not work well to define competition and cooperation in terms of rewards because definitions of this type incorrectly indicate that the two are opposites.

• Researchers tend to define competition and cooperation on the basis of rewards because this shows how the two differ.

• Researchers are looking for ways to define cooperation and competition in terms of rewards but have so far not been able to

  come up with definitions.

• Research has shown that the optimal definitions of competition and cooperation are those indicating that the two are opposites.

An understanding of the derivation of the word “competition” further supports the understanding that cooperation, rather than evoking a characteristic at the opposite extreme of human nature from competition, is in reality a necessary factor in competition.

3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 3? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

• “Competition” and “cooperation” are virtually synonyms due to the origins of each word.

• Despite the meaning of “competition,” research has shown that it is the extreme opposite in meaning to “cooperation.”

• One can recognize that cooperation is closely connected to competition though examining the origins of the word “competition.”

• People with characteristics at the opposite ends of human nature have found an essential connection by understanding the beginnings of the word “competition” and the principle of

  cooperation.

While the vast majority of people have an inherent sense of individual self-interest, this desire to put one’s own wants and needs ahead of those of others is softened by the desire for social connection and acceptance.

4 . Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

• People who show a strong sense of self-interest are more likely to have weak social connections and acceptances.

• Although it is difficult for inherently selfish people to develop close, accepting social relationships, they manage to connect to

  others.

• People who demonstrate less self-interest typically do not connect with those who demonstrate more self-interest.

• Even though most people want to take care of their own needs first, the desire for a connection to, and acceptance from others

  helps them to be less selfish.

However, even with the motivation of social cohesion influencing the competitive mindset and moving it more toward a collaborative way of thinking, this does not mean that competitors always become strictly cooperative within their close social circles.

5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 5? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

• However, social cohesion encourages competitors to move in the direction of more cooperative actions within their social circles.

• Nevertheless, competitors do not become exclusively cooperative in their actions within their close social group, in spite of the effect of social cohesion on behavior.

• In contrast, competitors move closer to social cohesion within their circle of friends and family by being strictly cooperative in their actions.

• Competitors influence the bond of social cohesion within the group through their cooperative behavior, although it is not always strictly collaborative.

"Researchers have found definitions of these two conditions based upon rewards inadequate, primarily due to the fact that definitions of these two concepts with reward distribution as the distinctive difference have depicted competition and cooperation as opposites."

7. In paragraph 2, why did researchers find the reward-based definitions of competition and cooperation inadequate?

• They did not take into account the importance of individual self-interest.

• They failed to recognize that competition and cooperation can coexist.

• They focused too much on the role of cooperation in team settings.

• They underestimated the role of rewards in cooperation.

"An understanding of the derivation of the word ‘competition’ further supports the understanding that cooperation, rather than evoking a characteristic at the opposite extreme of human nature from competition, is in reality a necessary factor in competition."

8. The word “evoking” in paragraph 3 most nearly means:

• A. Rejecting
  

• B. Eliminating
  

• C. Stimulating
  

• D. Recalling

"Interestingly, the word ‘competition’ is derived from a Latin verb which means ‘to come together.’"

9. According to the passage, what does the Latin root of the word "competition" suggest?

• Competition is fundamentally a cooperative activity.

• Competition is an individual pursuit.

• Cooperation and competition are distinct and separate.

• Cooperation hinders competition.

An understanding of the derivation of the word “competition” further supports the understanding that cooperation, rather than evoking a characteristic at the opposite extreme of human nature from competition, is in reality a necessary factor in competition.

3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 3? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

• A. “Competition” and “cooperation” are virtually synonyms due to the origins of each word.

• B. Despite the meaning of “competition,” research has shown that it is the extreme opposite in meaning to “cooperation.”

• C. One can recognize that cooperation is closely connected to competition though examining the origins of the word “competition.”

• D. People with characteristics at the opposite ends of human nature have found an essential connection by understanding the beginnings of the word “competition” and the principle of cooperation.

While the vast majority of people have an inherent sense of individual self-interest, this desire to put one’s own wants and needs ahead of those of others is softened by the desire for social connection and acceptance.

4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

• A. People who show a strong sense of self-interest are more likely to have weak social connections and acceptances.

• B. Although it is difficult for inherently selfish people to develop close, accepting social relationships, they manage to connect to others.

• C. People who demonstrate less self-interest typically do not connect with those who demonstrate more self-interest.

• D. Even though most people want to take care of their own needs first, the desire for a connection to, and acceptance from others helps them to be less selfish.