AP World History Unit 3

“When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down.

After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: ‘What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!’”

*The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul

-Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s

Question

The conduct of the siege as described in the passage could best be used to explain which of the following processes in the period 1450–1750 ?

• The transmission of new weapons along trade networks

• The use of new weapons by expanding imperial states

• The use of new weapons to establish trading-post empires

• The development of new processes of manufacturing to create new weapons

Answer explanation

The Ottoman Empire was an expanding imperial state and was using gunpowder weapons to capture Constantinople and destroy the Byzantine Empire. Gunpowder weapons were only used in warfare on a large scale beginning in the fourteenth century.

“When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down.

After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: ‘What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!’”

*The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul

Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s

Question

The type of warfare described in the passage most directly helps to explain which of the following sixteenth-century developments?

• The growing political influence of religious scholars at the Ottoman court

• The granting of substantial religious and legal autonomy to Christian subjects in the Ottoman Empire

• The intensification of political rivalries between the Ottoman Empire and neighboring states in Europe and the Middle East

• The decline of the importance of the Janissaries in the Ottoman army

Answer explanation

Gunpowder weapons helped increase the substantial military power of Ottoman armies and allowed them to conquer most of southern Europe and much of the Middle East in the sixteenth century. The Ottomans’ growing power alarmed European powers and the Safavid Empire in Iran during the sixteenth century, both of which sought to build their military arsenals to resist the Ottomans.

“When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down.

After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: ‘What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!’”

*The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul

Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s

Question

The type of weaponry used in the siege, as described in the passage, could also help to explain the expansion of all of the following states in the period 1450–1750 EXCEPT the

• Aztec (Mexica) Empire

• Safavid Empire

• Mughal Empire

• Qing dynasty

Answer explanation

While the Aztec (Mexica) Empire did expand its territory through conquest in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, it did not use gunpowder weapons during its conquests.

The relationship between levels of military personnel and state revenues as shown in the table is best understood in the context of which of the following global developments in the period 1450–1750 ?

• As military forces expanded and became more professionalized, states were forced to develop new ways to generate revenue.

• As agricultural technology became more advanced, less people were needed to farm and more people were able to be enrolled in state militaries.

• As commercial profits and urbanization increased, states were able to obtain more revenue.

• As states expanded their territories, they were able to acquire access to more natural resources.

Answer explanation

The data in the table show that as military forces increased in number, state revenue expanded as well. The expansion of military personnel was largely the result of the establishment of standing armies, in which soldiers were paid a regular wage to serve in the state’s military. To pay for ever-expanding armies, states needed to collect more and more revenue.

The trends in military personnel and state revenue shown in the table are best understood in the context of which of the following changes in the relationship between states and local elites in the period 1450–1750 ?

• States often relied on local elites to supervise provincial administration.

• Local elites began looking to the state to provide titles that demonstrated their legitimacy.

• States increasingly centralized their authority at the expense of local elites.

• Local elites began to command their own military forces.

Answer explanation

While local elites still retained significant power, states’ abilities to maintain standing armies and acquire larger and larger amounts of revenue allowed states to centralize their authority and reduce the power of local elites.

Which of the following developments in the period 1450–1750 is best understood as a response to the trends shown in the table?

• The creation of divine-right theories of monarchy

• The creation of larger state bureaucracies

• The emergence of tribute collection as a form of taxation

• The emergence of banking systems

Answer explanation

Because states developed standing armies and had more revenue coming in to their respective treasuries, they needed more bureaucrats to manage the larger armies and revenues.

“In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur’an says, “Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender.”

This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings.

I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess.

Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent.

But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage.”

Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514

Question

A historian would most likely interpret the rhetoric in the passage as evidence that rulers of imperial states in the period circa 1450–1750 continued to

• use religious ideas to highlight their political legitimacy and attack the legitimacy of their enemies

• prefer to resolve interstate conflicts through warfare rather than through diplomatic means

• patronize religious establishments and preside over religious ceremonies

• seek to unite forces to prevent the spread of secular ideas

Answer explanation

Sultan Selim’s rhetoric in the passage presents a sharp contrast between the idealized and honorific terms in which Selim refers to himself and his realm and the disparaging and belittling terms that Selim uses to describe his political enemy, the shah of Safavid Persia.

“In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur’an says, “Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender.”

This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings.

I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess.

Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent.

But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage.”

Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514

Question

Based on the purpose of the letter, Selim’s description of the followers of Shah Ismail I as a “heretical faction” can best be interpreted as a commentary of the Safavid Empire’s

• military strength

• adherence to Shi'a Islam

• Turkic origins

• use of the Persian language

Answer explanation

The Safavid rulers adopted Shi‘a Islam, which set them apart from the Sunni rulers of the Ottoman Empire. This religious rivalry would be the best explanation for Selim’s use of the derogatory term “heretical” to describe the Safavid followers.

“In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur’an says, “Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender.”

This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings.

I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess.

Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent.

But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage.”

Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514

Question

Which of the following aspects of the international situation in early sixteenth-century southwest Asia is most relevant to understanding Sultan Selim’s letter?

• The Ottoman and Safavid empires fought numerous wars for control over Iraq, Syria, and other regions of the Middle East.

• Both the Ottoman and Safavid empires developed extensive trade connections with European states and states in the Indian Ocean region.

• Both the Ottoman and Safavid empires made use of gunpowder weapons in the course of their territorial expansion.

• The Ottoman and Safavid empires brought a high degree of centralization to parts of southwest Asia that had been politically fragmented before.

Answer explanation

The Safavids and the Sunni Ottoman Turks fought several wars over control of various parts of the Middle East during the sixteenth century, and each side employed rhetoric and propaganda characterizing the other as religious heretics.