Levels of difficulty

Which example shows a situation where L1 and L2 forms are equivalent and can be transferred directly?

• English coffee vs. Spanish café (same meaning, nearly same form)

• English the vs. Russian (no article system)

• English fun vs. French amusant (different usage, partial overlap)

• English rice vs. Japanese (split into gohan “cooked rice” and kome “uncooked rice”)

Which of these is an example of coalescence, where two distinctions in L1 merge into one in L2?

• English has he and she, but Turkish has only o for both.

• English has a vs. the, while Russian has no articles.

• English has fun vs. funny, while French amusant covers both.

• English has know vs. know how, while Spanish saber covers both.

Which case best illustrates underdifferentiation, where an L1 category does not exist in L2?

• English has a /θ/ sound (as in think), but Vietnamese does not.

• English has two verbs to know (saber vs. conocer in Spanish).

• English and German both have plural -s forms.

• English has cat and dog, but both exist in French too.

Which sentence reflects reinterpretation, where the same form exists but functions differently?

• English coffee vs. Spanish café (direct equivalence).

• English he vs. Turkish o (coalescence).

• English uses progressive (I am eating), but German uses simple present for the same meaning.

• English fun vs. French amusant (different overlap).

Which example shows overdifferentiation, where the learner must acquire a completely new form not in L1?

• English he/she → Turkish o.

• Spanish learners can transfer teléfono → telephone.

• French amusant partly overlaps with English funny.

• Vietnamese learners must learn English articles a and the, which don’t exist in Vietnamese.

Which case shows a split, where one L1 form corresponds to two (or more) distinctions in L2?

• English he/she vs. Turkish o.

• English coffee vs. Spanish café.

• Spanish ser vs. estar (“to be”), while English has only be.

• English the vs. Russian (no articles).

Which is an example of Level 0 transfer?

• English to be vs. Spanish ser/estar

• English banana vs. French banane

• English the vs. Russian (no article system)

• English rice vs. Japanese (kome/gohan)

Which case allows an L1 learner to use their knowledge without adjustment?

• English library vs. Spanish librería (false friend)

• English hotel vs. French hôtel

• English he/she vs. Turkish o

• English I am eating vs. German ich esse (reinterpretation)

Which shows coalescence, where two L1 distinctions collapse into one in L2?

• English library vs. Spanish biblioteca (direct transfer)

• English coffee vs. Spanish café (direct transfer)

• English has /θ/ (think), which Japanese lacks.

• English distinguishes finger vs. toe, but Spanish uses dedo for both.

Which vocabulary item reflects underdifferentiation?

• English rice vs. Japanese kome/gohan

• English coffee vs. Spanish café

• English distinguishes cousin by gender (cousin male/female), but Vietnamese uses one term.

• English he vs. Turkish o