Understanding Correlation and Causation

What is the main misconception about the relationship between ice cream sales and shark attacks?

• Ice cream sales directly cause shark attacks.

• Shark attacks cause an increase in ice cream sales.

• Both are caused by a third factor, such as summer heat.

• There is no correlation between ice cream sales and shark attacks.

What does the post hoc fallacy suggest?

• The direction of causation is always clear.

• If one event follows another, the first event caused the second.

• Two events occurring together are always coincidental.

• If two events occur together, one must cause the other.

Which of the following is an example of the post hoc fallacy?

• Wearing a lucky charm and winning a game.

• Studying hard and getting good grades.

• Eating healthy and feeling energetic.

• Exercising regularly and losing weight.

What is the directionality problem in correlation?

• It means that both variables are independent.

• It refers to the inability to determine which variable is the cause and which is the effect.

• It suggests that two variables are unrelated.

• It indicates that one variable always causes the other.

How can exercise and happiness illustrate the directionality problem?

• Exercise always leads to happiness.

• Neither exercise nor happiness are related.

• Happiness always leads to exercise.

• Both exercise and happiness can influence each other.

What is a third variable problem?

• A case where two variables have no relationship.

• A scenario where an unseen factor influences two correlated events.

• A problem that occurs when variables are independent.

• A situation where two variables are directly related.

Which example best illustrates a third variable problem?

• Eating junk food and gaining weight.

• Exercising and losing weight.

• Ice cream sales and shark attacks both increase due to summer heat.

• Studying and getting good grades.

What is confirmation bias?

• The ability to objectively evaluate all evidence.

• The tendency to ignore all evidence.

• The tendency to seek out information that contradicts our beliefs.

• The tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs.

How does illusory correlation relate to confirmation bias?

• It is the belief that only scientific evidence is valid.

• It is the belief that unrelated events are connected due to pre-existing beliefs.

• It is the belief that all correlations are causations.

• It is the belief that all events are random.

Which of the following is an example of illusory correlation?

• Recognizing that exercise improves health.

• Knowing that studying leads to better grades.

• Understanding that vaccines do not cause autism.

• Believing that full moons cause hospital chaos.