In 1831 Giuseppe Mazzini, a bold leader from Genoa, founded a secret society called Young Italy.

When voters in southern Italy supported union with Sardinia in October 1860, Garibaldi surrendered his conquests to Otto von Bismarck.

France was the last of the great European powers to achieve complete political unity.

In September 1862, Napoleon III declared that the great issues of the times would not be decided “by speeches and majority decisions … but by blood and iron.”

The purpose of the Seven Weeks War was to unite Austria with Germany and end the chance for a united Italy.

After easily defeating France, Bismarck gained support from all the German states for the unification of Germany under Austria.

With the support of Kaiser William I, Bismarck took charge of policy in the German Empire.

Bismarck viewed Catholicism as an nationalist force and consequently supported the Catholics in political affairs.

Bismarck directed the passage of several bills that gave workers some measure of comfort and security. The Sickness Insurance Law (1883) and the Old Age Insurance Law (1889) were both examples of Bismarck’s efforts.

Bismarck tried to show the workers of Germany that the government, and not the Socialists, had their true interests at heart.

On March 3, 1861, Alexander II decreed the emancipation, or freeing, of the serfs.

The German Empire at this time contained more than 11 different national groups, including the Germans of Austria and the Magyars of Hungary.

When Emperor Francis Ferdinand resigned his throne in 1848, his nephew, Francis Joseph, became emperor at the age of 18.

Although the Russian government quickly crushed the so-called Decembrist Revolt, the uprising made its leaders be seen as martyrs and inspired later Russian generations.