Text 1

Most people can remember a phone number for up to thirty seconds. When this short amount of time elapses, however, the numbers are erased from the memory. How did the information get there in the first place? Information that makes its way to the short term memory (STM) does so via the sensory storage area. The brain has a filter which only allows stimuli that is of immediate interest to pass on to the STM, also known as the working memory.

There is much debate about the capacity and duration of the short term memory. The most accepted theory comes from George A. Miller, a cognitive psychologist who suggested that humans can remember approximately seven chunks of information. A chunk is defined as a meaningful unit of information, such as a word or name rather than just a letter or number. Modern theorists suggest that one can increase the capacity of the short term memory by chunking, or classifying similar information together. By organizing information, one can optimize the STM, and improve the chances of a memory being passed on to long term storage.

When making a conscious effort to memorize something, such as information for an exam, many people engage in "rote rehearsal". By repeating something over and over again, one is able to keep a memory alive. Unfortunately, this type of memory maintenance only succeeds if there are no interruptions. As soon as a person stops rehearsing the information, it has the tendency to disappear. When a pen and paper are not handy, people often attempt to remember a phone number by repeating it aloud. If the doorbell rings or the dog barks to come in before a person has the opportunity to make a phone call, he will likely forget the number instantly.* Therefore, rote rehearsal is not an efficient way to pass information from the short term to long term memory.* A better way is to practice "elaborate rehearsal". *This involves assigning semantic meaning to a piece of information so that it can be filed along with other pre-existing long term memories.*

Encoding information semantically also makes it more retrievable. Retrieving information can be done by recognition or recall. Humans can easily recall memories that are stored in the long term memory and used often; however, if a memory seems to be forgotten, it may eventually be retrieved by prompting. The more cues a person is given (such as pictures), the more likely a memory can be retrieved. This is why multiple choice tests are often used for subjects that require a lot of memorization.

The word elapses in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

Text 1

Most people can remember a phone number for up to thirty seconds. When this short amount of time elapses, however, the numbers are erased from the memory. How did the information get there in the first place? Information that makes its way to the short term memory (STM) does so via the sensory storage area. The brain has a filter which only allows stimuli that is of immediate interest to pass on to the STM, also known as the working memory.

There is much debate about the capacity and duration of the short term memory. The most accepted theory comes from George A. Miller, a cognitive psychologist who suggested that humans can remember approximately seven chunks of information. A chunk is defined as a meaningful unit of information, such as a word or name rather than just a letter or number. Modern theorists suggest that one can increase the capacity of the short term memory by chunking, or classifying similar information together. By organizing information, one can optimize the STM, and improve the chances of a memory being passed on to long term storage.

When making a conscious effort to memorize something, such as information for an exam, many people engage in "rote rehearsal". By repeating something over and over again, one is able to keep a memory alive. Unfortunately, this type of memory maintenance only succeeds if there are no interruptions. As soon as a person stops rehearsing the information, it has the tendency to disappear. When a pen and paper are not handy, people often attempt to remember a phone number by repeating it aloud. If the doorbell rings or the dog barks to come in before a person has the opportunity to make a phone call, he will likely forget the number instantly.* Therefore, rote rehearsal is not an efficient way to pass information from the short term to long term memory.* A better way is to practice "elaborate rehearsal". *This involves assigning semantic meaning to a piece of information so that it can be filed along with other pre-existing long term memories.*

Encoding information semantically also makes it more retrievable. Retrieving information can be done by recognition or recall. Humans can easily recall memories that are stored in the long term memory and used often; however, if a memory seems to be forgotten, it may eventually be retrieved by prompting. The more cues a person is given (such as pictures), the more likely a memory can be retrieved. This is why multiple choice tests are often used for subjects that require a lot of memorization.

All of the following are mentioned as place In which memories are stored, Except the..

Text 1

Most people can remember a phone number for up to thirty seconds. When this short amount of time elapses, however, the numbers are erased from the memory. How did the information get there in the first place? Information that makes its way to the short term memory (STM) does so via the sensory storage area. The brain has a filter which only allows stimuli that is of immediate interest to pass on to the STM, also known as the working memory.

There is much debate about the capacity and duration of the short term memory. The most accepted theory comes from George A. Miller, a cognitive psychologist who suggested that humans can remember approximately seven chunks of information. A chunk is defined as a meaningful unit of information, such as a word or name rather than just a letter or number. Modern theorists suggest that one can increase the capacity of the short term memory by chunking, or classifying similar information together. By organizing information, one can optimize the STM, and improve the chances of a memory being passed on to long term storage.

When making a conscious effort to memorize something, such as information for an exam, many people engage in "rote rehearsal". By repeating something over and over again, one is able to keep a memory alive. Unfortunately, this type of memory maintenance only succeeds if there are no interruptions. As soon as a person stops rehearsing the information, it has the tendency to disappear. When a pen and paper are not handy, people often attempt to remember a phone number by repeating it aloud. If the doorbell rings or the dog barks to come in before a person has the opportunity to make a phone call, he will likely forget the number instantly.* Therefore, rote rehearsal is not an efficient way to pass information from the short term to long term memory.* A better way is to practice "elaborate rehearsal". *This involves assigning semantic meaning to a piece of information so that it can be filed along with other pre-existing long term memories.*

Encoding information semantically also makes it more retrievable. Retrieving information can be done by recognition or recall. Humans can easily recall memories that are stored in the long term memory and used often; however, if a memory seems to be forgotten, it may eventually be retrieved by prompting. The more cues a person is given (such as pictures), the more likely a memory can be retrieved. This is why multiple choice tests are often used for subjects that require a lot of memorization.

Why does the author mention the dog’s Bark?

Passage 1

Despite the countless advances in medicine over the last hundred years, today's primary treatment for broken bones remains largely identical to the treatment used throughout human history. The reason for this is simple: bones are excellent at healing themselves. Through a process that may last weeks or months, the bone and surrounding cells return the broken bone to its natural state.

Immediately after a bone breaks, the surrounding blood vessels begin to constrict, reducing additional blood loss, and a blood clot forms around the fracture site. Loose blood cells, bone fragments, and germs are restricted within the blood clot. Cells that collect and destroy threatening material begin to clean the area. At this point, a doctor will set the bone to ensure that the rest of the process goes well.

It takes a few days for the periostium, the membrane that naturally surrounds the bone, to respond to the break. The periostial cells closest to the fracture begin to transform and merge into soft cartilage at the fracture site. More distant periostial cells become woven bone, which work their way toward the fracture and merge with the soft cartilage.

Nearby fibrous cells also transform into cartilage. Before too long, this soft cartilage forms a connection across the fracture gap, uniting the bone with a somewhat soft band

known as a fracture callus.

The fracture callus takes on some of the qualities of the nearby bone. Most importantly, it develops a mineral matrix which allows bone-building cells known as osteoblasts to travel through it. The many channels that run through the fracture callus soon fill with osteoblasts, which meticulously line each channel wall with bone. This phase lasts four to six weeks. Once complete, the bone reaches the stage in which we usually consider it healed.

While the person who finally feels well may be grateful to think that everything is complete once the cast comes off, the body

is not yet satisfied with its own work. Beneath the skin, a bulge of bone remains at the fracture site. The body spends one to three years dutifully breaking this bulky tissue down and replacing it with compact bone so that it returns to approximately the same shape it had initially.

Although modern scientists know a great deal more about the way that bones repair themselves than scientists of a hundred years ago did, today's medics still mostly treat fractures in the old fashioned way: setting bones, making casts, and monitoring the process. There is simply very little to be done to improve the natural efficiency of the bone's healing process

According to Passage 1, the membrane surrounding the bone

Passage 1

Despite the countless advances in medicine over the last hundred years, today's primary treatment for broken bones remains largely identical to the treatment used throughout human history. The reason for this is simple: bones are excellent at healing themselves. Through a process that may last weeks or months, the bone and surrounding cells return the broken bone to its natural state.

Immediately after a bone breaks, the surrounding blood vessels begin to constrict, reducing additional blood loss, and a blood clot forms around the fracture site. Loose blood cells, bone fragments, and germs are restricted within the blood clot. Cells that collect and destroy threatening material begin to clean the area. At this point, a doctor will set the bone to ensure that the rest of the process goes well.

It takes a few days for the periostium, the membrane that naturally surrounds the bone, to respond to the break. The periostial cells closest to the fracture begin to transform and merge into soft cartilage at the fracture site. More distant periostial cells become woven bone, which work their way toward the fracture and merge with the soft cartilage.

Nearby fibrous cells also transform into cartilage. Before too long, this soft cartilage forms a connection across the fracture gap, uniting the bone with a somewhat soft band

known as a fracture callus.

The fracture callus takes on some of the qualities of the nearby bone. Most importantly, it develops a mineral matrix which allows bone-building cells known as osteoblasts to travel through it. The many channels that run through the fracture callus soon fill with osteoblasts, which meticulously line each channel wall with bone. This phase lasts four to six weeks. Once complete, the bone reaches the stage in which we usually consider it healed.

While the person who finally feels well may be grateful to think that everything is complete once the cast comes off, the body

is not yet satisfied with its own work. Beneath the skin, a bulge of bone remains at the fracture site. The body spends one to three years dutifully breaking this bulky tissue down and replacing it with compact bone so that it returns to approximately the same shape it had initially.

Although modern scientists know a great deal more about the way that bones repair themselves than scientists of a hundred years ago did, today's medics still mostly treat fractures in the old fashioned way: setting bones, making casts, and monitoring the process. There is simply very little to be done to improve the natural efficiency of the bone's healing process

Passage 1 states that returning the bulging bone to its original shape takes

Passage 1

Despite the countless advances in medicine over the last hundred years, today's primary treatment for broken bones remains largely identical to the treatment used throughout human history. The reason for this is simple: bones are excellent at healing themselves. Through a process that may last weeks or months, the bone and surrounding cells return the broken bone to its natural state.

Immediately after a bone breaks, the surrounding blood vessels begin to constrict, reducing additional blood loss, and a blood clot forms around the fracture site. Loose blood cells, bone fragments, and germs are restricted within the blood clot. Cells that collect and destroy threatening material begin to clean the area. At this point, a doctor will set the bone to ensure that the rest of the process goes well.

It takes a few days for the periostium, the membrane that naturally surrounds the bone, to respond to the break. The periostial cells closest to the fracture begin to transform and merge into soft cartilage at the fracture site. More distant periostial cells become woven bone, which work their way toward the fracture and merge with the soft cartilage.

Nearby fibrous cells also transform into cartilage. Before too long, this soft cartilage forms a connection across the fracture gap, uniting the bone with a somewhat soft band

known as a fracture callus.

The fracture callus takes on some of the qualities of the nearby bone. Most importantly, it develops a mineral matrix which allows bone-building cells known as osteoblasts to travel through it. The many channels that run through the fracture callus soon fill with osteoblasts, which meticulously line each channel wall with bone. This phase lasts four to six weeks. Once complete, the bone reaches the stage in which we usually consider it healed.

While the person who finally feels well may be grateful to think that everything is complete once the cast comes off, the body

is not yet satisfied with its own work. Beneath the skin, a bulge of bone remains at the fracture site. The body spends one to three years dutifully breaking this bulky tissue down and replacing it with compact bone so that it returns to approximately the same shape it had initially.

Although modern scientists know a great deal more about the way that bones repair themselves than scientists of a hundred years ago did, today's medics still mostly treat fractures in the old fashioned way: setting bones, making casts, and monitoring the process. There is simply very little to be done to improve the natural efficiency of the bone's healing process

As it is used in line 16, "restricted" most nearly means

Passage 2

Between five and ten percent of bone fractures result in a phenomenon called "non-union," in which the bones fail to mend by natural process. If the bone has not begun mending 45 days after the fracture event, it is considered a non-union case. Therapies to overcome this problem by encouraging union have proven effective in many cases.

Experiments conducted using electric energy to overcome non-union began in 1821. At that time, a British doctor named Hartshorne attempted to treat a broken bone by passing electric currents through the fracture site. One other doctor experimented with Hartshorne's findings in the same century, but the work remained largely ignored until 1953, when a new study on rabbit bone growth stimulation using electricity was published.

Following the 1953 study, a variety of clinical trials proved that electric currents helped stimulate bone growth in non-union cases. In 1971, the electronic therapy helped overcome non-union in a 51-year-old lady.

Since then, the procedure has proven effective in a small majority of cases. In 1994, the

Food and Drug Administration of the United States of America approved the medical use of electric bone growth stimulation to treat fractures.

The key to this treatment's effectiveness is not the application of electricity to the bone itself, but the way the electricity influences the cells surrounding the fracture. Electric currents encourage collagen production, mineralization processes, and the speed with which the body transports needed nutrients to the fracture site.

In addition to its effectiveness in non- union cases, electricity has proven somewhat effective at speeding the natural process of bone healing when treatment begins at the time of the fracture. However, the increase in speed is not considerable enough to merit application to all broken bones, especially when weighed against the additional time, effort, and expense required to receive treatment.

Which choice best describes the view Passage 2's author holds of electric theraphy applied in normal union fractures?

Passage 2

Between five and ten percent of bone fractures result in a phenomenon called "non-union," in which the bones fail to mend by natural process. If the bone has not begun mending 45 days after the fracture event, it is considered a non-union case. Therapies to overcome this problem by encouraging union have proven effective in many cases.

Experiments conducted using electric energy to overcome non-union began in 1821. At that time, a British doctor named Hartshorne attempted to treat a broken bone by passing electric currents through the fracture site. One other doctor experimented with Hartshorne's findings in the same century, but the work remained largely ignored until 1953, when a new study on rabbit bone growth stimulation using electricity was published.

Following the 1953 study, a variety of clinical trials proved that electric currents helped stimulate bone growth in non-union cases. In 1971, the electronic therapy helped overcome non-union in a 51-year-old lady.

Since then, the procedure has proven effective in a small majority of cases. In 1994, the

Food and Drug Administration of the United States of America approved the medical use of electric bone growth stimulation to treat fractures.

The key to this treatment's effectiveness is not the application of electricity to the bone itself, but the way the electricity influences the cells surrounding the fracture. Electric currents encourage collagen production, mineralization processes, and the speed with which the body transports needed nutrients to the fracture site.

In addition to its effectiveness in non- union cases, electricity has proven somewhat effective at speeding the natural process of bone healing when treatment begins at the time of the fracture. However, the increase in speed is not considerable enough to merit application to all broken bones, especially when weighed against the additional time, effort, and expense required to receive treatment.

The central idea of Passage 2 is ?

Passage 2

Between five and ten percent of bone fractures result in a phenomenon called "non-union," in which the bones fail to mend by natural process. If the bone has not begun mending 45 days after the fracture event, it is considered a non-union case. Therapies to overcome this problem by encouraging union have proven effective in many cases.

Experiments conducted using electric energy to overcome non-union began in 1821. At that time, a British doctor named Hartshorne attempted to treat a broken bone by passing electric currents through the fracture site. One other doctor experimented with Hartshorne's findings in the same century, but the work remained largely ignored until 1953, when a new study on rabbit bone growth stimulation using electricity was published.

Following the 1953 study, a variety of clinical trials proved that electric currents helped stimulate bone growth in non-union cases. In 1971, the electronic therapy helped overcome non-union in a 51-year-old lady.

Since then, the procedure has proven effective in a small majority of cases. In 1994, the

Food and Drug Administration of the United States of America approved the medical use of electric bone growth stimulation to treat fractures.

The key to this treatment's effectiveness is not the application of electricity to the bone itself, but the way the electricity influences the cells surrounding the fracture. Electric currents encourage collagen production, mineralization processes, and the speed with which the body transports needed nutrients to the fracture site.

In addition to its effectiveness in non- union cases, electricity has proven somewhat effective at speeding the natural process of bone healing when treatment begins at the time of the fracture. However, the increase in speed is not considerable enough to merit application to all broken bones, especially when weighed against the additional time, effort, and expense required to receive treatment.

According to line 69, “event” is closes in meaning to?