Vocabulary questions ask you to identify the meanings of words or phrases as they are used in a reading passage.

Reference questions ask you to verify what information is true and what information is not true in a passage.

Sentence Simplification questions ask you to identify a sentence that has essentially the same meaning as a sentence from a reading passage.

[3] If true, though, why did cold-blooded animals such as snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles survive the freezing winters and torrid summers? These animals are at the mercy of the climate to maintain a livable body temperature. It’s hard to understand why they would not be affected, whereas dinosaurs were left too crippled to cope, especially if, as some scientists believe, dinosaurs were warm-blooded. Critics also point out that the shallow seaways had retreated from and advanced on the continents numerous times during the Mesozoic, so why did the dinosaurs survive the climatic changes associated with the earlier fluctuation but not with this one? Although initially appealing, the hypothesis of a simple climatic change related to sea levels is insufficient to explain all the data.

The word “cope” in the passage is closest in meaning to?

If true, though, why did cold-blooded animals such as snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles survive the freezing winters and torrid summers? These animals are at the mercy of the climate to maintain a livable body temperature. It’s hard to understand why they would not be affected, whereas dinosaurs were left too crippled to cope, especially if, as some scientists believe, dinosaurs were warm-blooded. Critics also point out that the shallow seaways had retreated from and advanced on the continents numerous times during the Mesozoic, so why did the dinosaurs survive the climatic changes associated with the earlier fluctuations but not with this one? Although initially appealing, the hypothesis of a simple climatic change related to sea levels is insufficient to explain all the data.

The word “fluctuations” in the passage is closest in meaning to?

Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution is known as one of the most important and controversial scientific theories ever published. Natural selection contributes to the basis of Darwin's Theory of Evolution. One of the core tenets of Darwin's theory is that more offspring are always produced for a species than can possibly survive. Yet, no two offspring are perfectly alike. As a result, through random mutation and genetic drift, over time offspring develop new traits and characteristics. Over time beneficial traits and characteristics that promote survival will be kept in the gene pool while those that harm survival will be selected against. Therefore, this natural selection ensures that a species gradually improves itself over an extended duration of time. On the other hand, as a species continues to 'improve' itself, it branches out to create entirely new species that are no longer capable of reproducing together.

The word 'those' in paragraph 1 refers to:

If true, though, why did cold-blooded animals such as snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles survive the freezing winters and torrid summers? These animals are at the mercy of the climate to maintain a livable body temperature. It’s hard to understand why they would not be affected, whereas dinosaurs were left too crippled to cope, especially if, as some scientists believe, dinosaurs were warm-blooded. Critics also point out that the shallow seaways had retreated from and advanced on the continents numerous times during the Mesozoic, so why did the dinosaurs survive the climatic changes associated with the earlier fluctuations but not with this one? Although initially appealing, the hypothesis of a simple climatic change related to sea levels is insufficient to explain all the data.

Why does the author mention the survival of “snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles”?

Dissatisfaction with conventional explanations for dinosaur extinctions led to a surprising observation that, in turn, has suggested a new hypothesis. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic). Between the last layer of Cretaceous rock and the first layer of Cenozoic rock, there is often a thin layer of clay. Scientists felt that they could get an idea of how long the extinctions took by determining how long it took to deposit this one centimeter of clay and they thought they could determine the time it took to deposit the clay by determining the amount of the element iridium (Ir) it contained.

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph ? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

fur

carnivorous

mammals

webbed

dense

den

to dive

cubs

frosted

whiskers

The Native American Trade is the trade between Europeans, their North American descendants, and the indigenous people of North America who are now known as Native Americans in the United States, First Nations in Canada, whom were formerly known as Indians. Indian Trade is the term used to describe the people involved in the trade, which began in the 1500s, and had various products in different regions and eras. In most of Canada the term is synonymous with the fur trade such as beaver fur which, from the European point of view, was the most valuable product of the trade.

Question: The word "indigenous" in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

[1] Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution is known as one of the most important and controversial scientific theories ever published. Natural selection contributes to the basis of Darwin's Theory of Evolution. One of the core tenets of Darwin's theory is that more offspring are always produced for a species than can possibly survive. Yet, no two offspring are perfectly alike. As a result, through random mutation and genetic drift, over time offspring develop new traits and characteristics. Over time beneficial traits and characteristics that promote survival will be kept in the gene pool while those that harm survival will be selected against. Therefore, this natural selection ensures that a species gradually improves itself over an extended duration of time. On the other hand, as a species continues to 'improve' itself, it branches out to create entirely new species that are no longer capable of reproducing together.

Question: The word 'those' in paragraph 1 refers to:

[4] Darwin's theory is that 'selective breeding' occurs in nature as 'natural selection' is the engine behind evolution. Thus, the theory provides an excellent basis for understanding how organisms change over time. Nevertheless, it is just a theory and elusively difficult to prove. One of the major holes in Darwin's theory revolves around “irreducibly complex systems.” An irreducibly complex system is known as a system where many different parts must all operate together. As a result, in the absence of one, the system as a whole collapses. Consequently, as modern technology improves, science can identify these “irreducibly complex systems” even at microscopic levels. These complex systems, if so inter-reliant, would be resistant to Darwin's supposition of how evolution occurs. As Darwin himself admitted, “To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus for different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I free confess, absurd in the highest degree.

what was the author's purpose of including a quote that the belief that the complexity of the human eye could have been formed by natural selection seems highly unlikely?

[3] The first eye fossils date back to 540 million years ago. Prior to this time, organisms may have had use for light sensitivity, but not for fast locomotion and navigation by vision. However, it remains difficult to evaluate the rate of eye evolution because the fossil record of this period is weak. The development of the circular patch of photoreceptor cells into a fully functional vertebrate eye has been estimated on the rates of mutation, relative benefit to the organism and natural selection. Based on these estimations, it is suggested that it would take less than 364,000 years for the complete evolution of the eye.

Question: According to paragraph 3, how has the development of a fully functional vertebrate eye been estimated?

[4] Darwin's theory is that 'selective breeding' occurs in nature as 'natural selection' is the engine behind evolution. Thus, the theory provides an excellent basis for understanding how organisms change over time. Nevertheless, it is just a theory and elusively difficult to prove. One of the major holes in Darwin's theory revolves around “irreducibly complex systems.” An irreducibly complex system is known as a system where many different parts must all operate together. As a result, in the absence of one, the system as a whole collapses. Consequently, as modern technology improves, science can identify these “irreducibly complex systems” even at microscopic levels. These complex systems, if so inter-reliant, would be resistant to Darwin's supposition of how evolution occurs. As Darwin himself admitted, “To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus for different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I free confess, absurd in the highest degree.

Question: All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as a viewpoint to state the natural selection is difficult to prove EXCEPT

[4] Dissatisfaction with conventional explanations for dinosaur extinctions led to a surprising observation that, in turn, has suggested a new hypothesis. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic). Between the last layer of Cretaceous rock and the first layer of Cenozoic rock, there is often a thin layer of clay. Scientists felt that they could get an idea of how long the extinctions took by determining how long it took to deposit this one centimeter of clay and they thought they could determine the time it took to deposit the clay by determining the amount of the element iridium (Ir) it contained.

Question: Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

█ [A] Economic contact between Native Americans and Europeans can be traced back to the English and French fishermen off the coast of Canada in the 1500s. They traded guns and other weapons for beaver fur. █ [B] The first explorers to trade with the Native Americans were Giovanni da Verrazano and Jacques Cartier in the 1520s and 1530s. █ [C]In Verrazano's book he notes, "If we wanted to trade with them for some of their things, they would come to the seashore on some rocks where the breakers were most violent while we remained on the little boat █ [D]and they sent us what they wanted to give on a rope, continually shouting to us not to approach the land.

Question: In paragraph 5 of the passage, there is a missing sentence. The paragraph shows four letters (A, B, C, and D) that indicate where the following sentence could be added.

"Trade was difficult for the early Europeans trading with Native Americans during the first trades."

1 The city of Teotihuacán, which lay about 50 kilometers northeast of modern-day Mexico City, began its growth by 200 –100 B.C. At its height, between about A.D. 150 and 700, it probably had a population of more than 125,000 people and covered at least 20 square kilometers. It had over 2,000 apartment complexes, a great market, a large number of industrial workshops, an administrative center, a number of massive religious edifices, and a regular grid pattern of streets and buildings. Clearly, much planning and central control were involved in the expansion and ordering of this great metropolis. Moreover, the city had economic and perhaps religious contacts with most parts of Mesoamerica (modern Central America and Mexico).

In paragraph 1, each of the following is mentioned as a feature of the city ofTeotihuacán between A.D. 150 and 700 EXCEPT

The main idea of this passage is that

Read the passage and answer the questions. For each question, choose the answer which you think fits best according to the text.

Jenny found her old bicycle at the back of the garage. It was a lot smaller than she remembered. When she sat on it and put her feet on the pedals, her knees nearly touched her chin. She put it back sadly and went inside the house. Her dad was working on his computer in the study.

‘Dad, can I get a new bicycle?’ asked Jenny.

‘Sure,’ said Jenny’s dad. ‘Cycling is good for you. You can get one for your birthday.’

‘But my birthday isn’t for months!’ cried Jenny. ‘Everyone at school has a bike. They all go to the park after school together. I want to go too!’

‘Well, I’m sorry, but I can’t afford a bicycle now,’ said dad. ‘Why don’t you work and earn some money? You can save up for a bicycle yourself.’

Jenny was thoughtful.

‘I’m very busy now,’ dad went on. ‘I don’t have time to cut the grass. If you do that, I’ll give you five dollars.’

‘Okay,’ said Jenny. She went to the garage and got the lawnmower. She hadn’t used it before. It was quite heavy and difficult to push, but soon the grass was cut. She was putting the lawnmower away when her neighbor, Mrs. Watkins, looked over the wall.

‘You did a good job there! Can you mow my lawn too?’ said Mrs Watkins. ‘I’ll give you ten dollars!’

‘Sure!’ said Jenny. ‘I’ll come right away!’

That night Jenny went on the computer. She wrote ‘Gardening and Housework – Ten dollars an hour. Call Jenny at 23 Roseville Lane.’ She decorated the page with pictures of cleaning and gardening equipment. She printed it fifty times. Then she posted the pages through all the doors on her street.

That week, Jenny was very busy! Lots of people had jobs to do, but they didn’t have time to do them. So they called Jenny. Every day, Jenny rushed home from school. She did her homework quickly, and then she went out to work.

At the end of the week, she had $65! She told her father.

‘That’s enough for a second hand bicycle,’ he said.

‘Yes, but if I work for one more week, I might have enough money for a new bike,’ said Jenny. ‘In two more weeks, I could buy a really good bicycle! I think that’s what I’ll do. I want to have the best bicycle in the class, because I earned it!’

Jenny’s dad hugged her. ‘I think you learned something important. We appreciate things a lot more when we earn them. When we get something without earning it, we do not realize its true value.’

1 What was the problem with Jenny’s old bicycle?

Read the passage and answer the questions. For each question, choose the answer which you think fits best according to the text.

Jenny found her old bicycle at the back of the garage. It was a lot smaller than she remembered. When she sat on it and put her feet on the pedals, her knees nearly touched her chin. She put it back sadly and went inside the house. Her dad was working on his computer in the study.

‘Dad, can I get a new bicycle?’ asked Jenny.

‘Sure,’ said Jenny’s dad. ‘Cycling is good for you. You can get one for your birthday.’

‘But my birthday isn’t for months!’ cried Jenny. ‘Everyone at school has a bike. They all go to the park after school together. I want to go too!’

‘Well, I’m sorry, but I can’t afford a bicycle now,’ said dad. ‘Why don’t you work and earn some money? You can save up for a bicycle yourself.’

Jenny was thoughtful.

‘I’m very busy now,’ dad went on. ‘I don’t have time to cut the grass. If you do that, I’ll give you five dollars.’

‘Okay,’ said Jenny. She went to the garage and got the lawnmower. She hadn’t used it before. It was quite heavy and difficult to push, but soon the grass was cut. She was putting the lawnmower away when her neighbor, Mrs. Watkins, looked over the wall.

‘You did a good job there! Can you mow my lawn too?’ said Mrs Watkins. ‘I’ll give you ten dollars!’

‘Sure!’ said Jenny. ‘I’ll come right away!’

That night Jenny went on the computer. She wrote ‘Gardening and Housework – Ten dollars an hour. Call Jenny at 23 Roseville Lane.’ She decorated the page with pictures of cleaning and gardening equipment. She printed it fifty times. Then she posted the pages through all the doors on her street.

That week, Jenny was very busy! Lots of people had jobs to do, but they didn’t have time to do them. So they called Jenny. Every day, Jenny rushed home from school. She did her homework quickly, and then she went out to work.

At the end of the week, she had $65! She told her father.

‘That’s enough for a second hand bicycle,’ he said.

‘Yes, but if I work for one more week, I might have enough money for a new bike,’ said Jenny. ‘In two more weeks, I could buy a really good bicycle! I think that’s what I’ll do. I want to have the best bicycle in the class, because I earned it!’

Jenny’s dad hugged her. ‘I think you learned something important. We appreciate things a lot more when we earn them. When we get something without earning it, we do not realize its true value.’

2 Why didn’t Jenny’s dad buy her a bicycle?

Read the passage and answer the questions. For each question, choose the answer which you think fits best according to the text.

Jenny found her old bicycle at the back of the garage. It was a lot smaller than she remembered. When she sat on it and put her feet on the pedals, her knees nearly touched her chin. She put it back sadly and went inside the house. Her dad was working on his computer in the study.

‘Dad, can I get a new bicycle?’ asked Jenny.

‘Sure,’ said Jenny’s dad. ‘Cycling is good for you. You can get one for your birthday.’

‘But my birthday isn’t for months!’ cried Jenny. ‘Everyone at school has a bike. They all go to the park after school together. I want to go too!’

‘Well, I’m sorry, but I can’t afford a bicycle now,’ said dad. ‘Why don’t you work and earn some money? You can save up for a bicycle yourself.’

Jenny was thoughtful.

‘I’m very busy now,’ dad went on. ‘I don’t have time to cut the grass. If you do that, I’ll give you five dollars.’

‘Okay,’ said Jenny. She went to the garage and got the lawnmower. She hadn’t used it before. It was quite heavy and difficult to push, but soon the grass was cut. She was putting the lawnmower away when her neighbor, Mrs. Watkins, looked over the wall.

‘You did a good job there! Can you mow my lawn too?’ said Mrs Watkins. ‘I’ll give you ten dollars!’

‘Sure!’ said Jenny. ‘I’ll come right away!’

That night Jenny went on the computer. She wrote ‘Gardening and Housework – Ten dollars an hour. Call Jenny at 23 Roseville Lane.’ She decorated the page with pictures of cleaning and gardening equipment. She printed it fifty times. Then she posted the pages through all the doors on her street.

That week, Jenny was very busy! Lots of people had jobs to do, but they didn’t have time to do them. So they called Jenny. Every day, Jenny rushed home from school. She did her homework quickly, and then she went out to work.

At the end of the week, she had $65! She told her father.

‘That’s enough for a second hand bicycle,’ he said.

‘Yes, but if I work for one more week, I might have enough money for a new bike,’ said Jenny. ‘In two more weeks, I could buy a really good bicycle! I think that’s what I’ll do. I want to have the best bicycle in the class, because I earned it!’

Jenny’s dad hugged her. ‘I think you learned something important. We appreciate things a lot more when we earn them. When we get something without earning it, we do not realize its true value.’

Where did Jenny’s dad ask Jenny to work?

Read the passage and answer the questions. For each question, choose the answer which you think fits best according to the text.

Jenny found her old bicycle at the back of the garage. It was a lot smaller than she remembered. When she sat on it and put her feet on the pedals, her knees nearly touched her chin. She put it back sadly and went inside the house. Her dad was working on his computer in the study.

‘Dad, can I get a new bicycle?’ asked Jenny.

‘Sure,’ said Jenny’s dad. ‘Cycling is good for you. You can get one for your birthday.’

‘But my birthday isn’t for months!’ cried Jenny. ‘Everyone at school has a bike. They all go to the park after school together. I want to go too!’

‘Well, I’m sorry, but I can’t afford a bicycle now,’ said dad. ‘Why don’t you work and earn some money? You can save up for a bicycle yourself.’

Jenny was thoughtful.

‘I’m very busy now,’ dad went on. ‘I don’t have time to cut the grass. If you do that, I’ll give you five dollars.’

‘Okay,’ said Jenny. She went to the garage and got the lawnmower. She hadn’t used it before. It was quite heavy and difficult to push, but soon the grass was cut. She was putting the lawnmower away when her neighbor, Mrs. Watkins, looked over the wall.

‘You did a good job there! Can you mow my lawn too?’ said Mrs Watkins. ‘I’ll give you ten dollars!’

‘Sure!’ said Jenny. ‘I’ll come right away!’

That night Jenny went on the computer. She wrote ‘Gardening and Housework – Ten dollars an hour. Call Jenny at 23 Roseville Lane.’ She decorated the page with pictures of cleaning and gardening equipment. She printed it fifty times. Then she posted the pages through all the doors on her street.

That week, Jenny was very busy! Lots of people had jobs to do, but they didn’t have time to do them. So they called Jenny. Every day, Jenny rushed home from school. She did her homework quickly, and then she went out to work.

At the end of the week, she had $65! She told her father.

‘That’s enough for a second hand bicycle,’ he said.

‘Yes, but if I work for one more week, I might have enough money for a new bike,’ said Jenny. ‘In two more weeks, I could buy a really good bicycle! I think that’s what I’ll do. I want to have the best bicycle in the class, because I earned it!’

Jenny’s dad hugged her. ‘I think you learned something important. We appreciate things a lot more when we earn them. When we get something without earning it, we do not realize its true value.’

How does the girl feel after the first day?

Read the passage and answer the questions. For each question, choose the answer which you think fits best according to the text.

Jenny found her old bicycle at the back of the garage. It was a lot smaller than she remembered. When she sat on it and put her feet on the pedals, her knees nearly touched her chin. She put it back sadly and went inside the house. Her dad was working on his computer in the study.

‘Dad, can I get a new bicycle?’ asked Jenny.

‘Sure,’ said Jenny’s dad. ‘Cycling is good for you. You can get one for your birthday.’

‘But my birthday isn’t for months!’ cried Jenny. ‘Everyone at school has a bike. They all go to the park after school together. I want to go too!’

‘Well, I’m sorry, but I can’t afford a bicycle now,’ said dad. ‘Why don’t you work and earn some money? You can save up for a bicycle yourself.’

Jenny was thoughtful.

‘I’m very busy now,’ dad went on. ‘I don’t have time to cut the grass. If you do that, I’ll give you five dollars.’

‘Okay,’ said Jenny. She went to the garage and got the lawnmower. She hadn’t used it before. It was quite heavy and difficult to push, but soon the grass was cut. She was putting the lawnmower away when her neighbor, Mrs. Watkins, looked over the wall.

‘You did a good job there! Can you mow my lawn too?’ said Mrs Watkins. ‘I’ll give you ten dollars!’

‘Sure!’ said Jenny. ‘I’ll come right away!’

That night Jenny went on the computer. She wrote ‘Gardening and Housework – Ten dollars an hour. Call Jenny at 23 Roseville Lane.’ She decorated the page with pictures of cleaning and gardening equipment. She printed it fifty times. Then she posted the pages through all the doors on her street.

That week, Jenny was very busy! Lots of people had jobs to do, but they didn’t have time to do them. So they called Jenny. Every day, Jenny rushed home from school. She did her homework quickly, and then she went out to work.

At the end of the week, she had $65! She told her father.

‘That’s enough for a second hand bicycle,’ he said.

‘Yes, but if I work for one more week, I might have enough money for a new bike,’ said Jenny. ‘In two more weeks, I could buy a really good bicycle! I think that’s what I’ll do. I want to have the best bicycle in the class, because I earned it!’

Jenny’s dad hugged her. ‘I think you learned something important. We appreciate things a lot more when we earn them. When we get something without earning it, we do not realize its true value.’

How does the father feel after talking to Jenny at the end of the week?

“. . . Sculptures must, for example, be stable, which requires an understanding of the properties of mass, weight distribution, and stress. Paintings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. In other words, the demands of the laws of physics, not the sculptor’s aesthetic intentions, placed the ball there. That this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze) . . . “

According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because

: “The United States in the 1800’s was full of practical, hardworking people who did not consider the arts—from theater to painting—useful occupations. In addition, the public’s attitude that European art was better than American art both discouraged and infuriated American artists. In the early 1900’s there was a strong feeling among artists that the United States was long overdue in developing art that did not reproduce European traditions. Everybody agreed that the heart and soul of the new country should be reflected in its art. But opinions differed about what this art would be like and how it would develop.”

According to paragraph 1, all of the following were true of American art in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s EXCEPT:

“. . . The nineteenth century brought with it a burst of new discoveries and inventions that revolutionized the candle industry and made lighting available to all. In the early-to-mid-nineteenth century, a process was developed to refine tallow (fat from animals) with alkali and sulfuric acid. The result was a product called stearin. Stearin is harder and burns longer than unrefined tallow. This breakthrough meant that it was possible to make tallow candles that would not produce the usual smoke and rancid odor. Stearins were also derived from palm oils, so vegetable waxes as well as animal fats could be used to make candles . . . “

Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about candles before the nineteenth century?

“. . . Sensitivity to physical laws is thus an important consideration for the maker of applied-art objects. It is often taken for granted that this is also true for the maker of fine-art objects. This assumption misses a significant difference between the two disciplines. Fine-art objects are not constrained by the laws of physics in the same way that applied-art objects are. Because their primary purpose is not functional, they are only limited in terms of the materials used to make them. Sculptures must, for example, be stable, which requires an understanding of the properties of mass, weight distribution, and stress. Paintings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg . . .

Why does the author discuss the bronze statues of horses created by artists in the early Italian Renaissance?

“In the animal world the task of moving about is fulfilled in many ways. For some animals locomotion is accomplished by changes in body shape . . .”

The word locomotion in the passage is closest in meaning to

“. . . These laws are universal in their application, regardless of cultural beliefs, geography, or climate. If pots have no bottoms or have large openings in their sides, they could hardly be considered containers in any traditional sense. Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits . . . “

The word they in the passage refers to

“. . . The first weekly newspaper in the colonies was the Boston Gazette, established in 1719, the same year that marked the appearance of Philadelphia’s first newspaper, the American Mercury, where the young Benjamin Franklin worked. By 1760 Boston had 4 newspapers and 5 other printing establishments; Philadelphia, 2 newspapers and 3 other presses; and New York, 3 newspapers. The distribution, if not the sale, of newspapers was assisted by the establishment of a postal service in 1710, which had a network of some 65 offices by 1770, serving all 13 colonies . . .”

The word which in the passage refers to

“. . . Roots anchor the plant in one of two ways or sometimes by a combination of the two. The first is by occupying a large volume of shallow soil around the plant’s base with a fibrous root system, one consisting of many thin, profusely branched roots. Since these kinds of roots grow relatively close to the soil surface, they effectively control soil erosion. Grass roots are especially well suited to this purpose. Fibrous roots capture water as it begins to percolate into the ground and so must draw their mineral supplies from the surface soil before the nutrients are leached to lower levels . . .”

The phrase this purpose in the passage refers to

“. . . Although we now tend to refer to the various crafts according to the materials used to construct them—clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal—it was once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which led to their being known as the “applied arts.” Approaching crafts from the point of view of function, we can divide them into simple categories: containers, shelters, and supports. There is no way around the fact that containers, shelters, and supports must be functional. The applied arts are thus bound by the laws of physics, which pertain to both the materials used in their making and the substances and things to be contained, supported, and sheltered. These laws are universal in their application, regardless of cultural beliefs, geography, or climate. If a pot has no bottom or has large openings in its sides, it could hardly be considered a container in any traditional sense. Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits. Buildings without roofs, for example, are unusual because they depart from the norm. However, not all functional objects are exactly alike; that is why we recognize a Shang Dynasty vase as being different from an Inca vase. What varies is not the basic form but the incidental details that do not obstruct the object’s primary function . . .”

Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

“Scholars offer three related but different opinions about this puzzle. (A) One opinion is that the paintings were a record of the seasonal migrations made by herds. (B) Because some paintings were made directly over others, obliterating them, it is probable that a painting’s value ended with the migration it pictured. (C) Unfortunately, this explanation fails to explain the hidden locations, unless the migrations were celebrated with secret ceremonies. (D)”

Look at the four letters that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

All three of them have strengths and weaknesses, but none adequately answers all of the questions the paintings present.