The Romans used ____ to support military expansion and developed a ____ ____ in relations between humans and env.

(a)  

·       Tools in physical geography have evolved hugely, including through ___ mapping and visualization which put geographical tools in the hands of the ___.

(a)  

·       Physical geography is an ____ science, it uses a _____ approach but there is no single approach which works in all situations.

(a)  

A _____ _____ can happen when a natural event acts as an experimental treatment in an ecosystem.

(a)  

·       On human time scales, most landscapes appear to be ____, but over _____ timescales they change and evolve.

(a)  

·       A hypothesis = a ______ _____ about how something works. It may be an idea, a proposition, a possible mechanism of interaction, or a statement about an effect.

·       A null hypothesis = a statement or idea that can be ____ or proved wrong. This is used because its easier to prove something wrong than to prove something beyond ____ _____.

(a)  

·       All bodies with a temperature above ___K emit radiation.

·       Planck’s Law = radiation as a function of ____ (temperature controls where the peak is).

·       Earth’s radiation is totally in the ____ range, whereas solar radiation peaks in the visible range and moves into the visible AND infrared range.

(a)  

·       Passive instruments = can ___ and ____radiation. The frequency bands for passive sensor measurements are determined by the ___ ____ of the substance being measured.

·       Active instruments = can ___ and ___ __ radiation, used for measuring signals transmitted by the sensor that were reflected, refracted or scattered by the Earth’s surface or its atmosphere.

(a)  

·       Spectral resolution = describes the ability of a sensor to ___ ____ ____ ___/measure specific wavelengths of the EM spectrum. The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelength range for a particular channel/band. More bands in an image = more ___ ___.

·       Temporal resolution = the ___ ___ ____ between capturing 2 consecutive images. Higher temporal resolution means that satellites revisit and capture data from a site more ____.

(a)  

·       Polar orbits look like the criss-crossing ___ on earth, geostationary orbits look like a ___around earth.

(a)  

Geostationary satellites orbit _____km above earth, whereas polar orbits a few ____ km above earth. geostationary satellites have poor resolution in the ____ and ___ regions but polar orbits have less ____. Geostationary satellites have a temporal resolution of about ___ ____ whilst polar orbits have a return period of about ___ _____.

(a)  

Images used in geographic research are typically from (a)  

·       Hyperspectral instrument = a satellite than can produce the __ ___ ___ ____.

(a)  

·       Infrared radiation (emitted strongly by Earth) tells us about the (a)   of the object/body which emitted the radiation.

·      ___ ____ (emitted strongly by the sun) is reflected off some surfaces, and absorbed by others.

·       We can identify objects of interest based on their reflection characteristics, e.g. clouds.

(a)  

·       Thicker clouds have a higher ____(or albedo) and appear ____than thinner clouds on a visible image.

·       However, it is difficult to distinguish among low, middle and high level clouds in a visible satellite image, since they can all have a similar reflectivity. For this distinction, ____ satellite images are useful.

(a)  

·       We can estimate rainfall from IR satellites because ___ clouds produce more ___ and have ___ ___ which emit in longer IR wavelengths. This means that measuring IR gives info on cloud depth and rainfall.

(a)  

·       Lidar sends a ___ ___ through the atmosphere and measures the ___ off aerosol particles like dust. The time taken for the signal to ____ gives details on the height of the aerosol – Lidar can be carried on aircraft, satellites or placed on the ground.

(a)  

·       ___ mission – very important for determining ___ ____ (and how it changes over time – e.g., serious depletion in SE Asia) and mass balances of glaciers like the Greenland Ice Sheet.

·       If heavy rainfall, as the satellite moves over the additional mass of water, the satellite will have extra ___ and will ___ up a bit in its orbit. This means that as 2 satellites in orbit move over a heavier mass, 1 will speed up so you need to measure the distance between the satellites. Small differences in the gravity of earth’s surface, which can be monitored for 10 years and tell us about ice sheets.

(a)  

___ ___ is an ancient and long-term carbon sink.

(a)  

Ø  Weathering creates ____ diversity – e.g., the Grand Tsingy stone forest in ____. This contributes to physical habitat complexity at a range of spatial and temporal scales. It drives unique ____ adaptations and supports ____.

(a)  

the 5 key things that impact weathering....

____ hazards and climate, ____ impacts (e.g., pollution), _____, ground and soil and bio _____.

(a)  

The objectives of laboratory experiments in geomorphology science are to quantify ___ ___ and identify ___ ____, whereas laboratory analyses characterise materials and their weathering processes and rates in depth.

(a)  

·       Non-destructive methods = you don’t ___ or ___ with the system.

(a)  

·       Oxford Resilient Buildings and Landscapes Lab (OxRBL).

·       Includes work into ____, climate change and ___ conservation, scientific methods development, conservation ___ development and biodiversity, geomorphology and heritage conservation.

(a)  

·       Main objectives for methods in geomorphology are: to determine ___ and ___ of change (temporal aspect) and to understand material and their ___ and responses to the environment (spatial aspect).

(a)  

Mass spectrometry is a potent analytical method which allows the investigator to understand the ___ ___ of the sample, by determining how much of each ____ is present. By coupling a mass spectrometer to a powerful source of energy (highly energetic ____), it is possible to analyse almost the entire chemical constituents of a sample.

(a)  

Resistance-based moisture meters use the electrical resistivity of materials to measure moisture content. Electrical resistivity is an ____ material property defining the degree to which a material would ___ the flow of ___ ___. The resistance ___ with increasing internal moisture content, but it can also be affected by mineral composition porosity and other rock properties.

(a)  

Capacitance-based moisture meters use the ____ constant or permittivity of materials to determine the moisture content. Water has a ___ permittivity and porous materials like dry limestone have low permittivity. Thus, an increase in moisture content will give an increased capacitance reading.

(a)  

Some moisture meters use microwaves to investigate moisture in porous ___ ___. This is based on measuring the proportion of reflected energy of an ___ ___ within the investigated material. The frequency band is not affected by ___ contamination witin the rock material.

(a)  

Luminescence dating is a ____ method that is used to date the ____ of __ ____. Based on the emission of light, we are able to date the last point a sand grain was exposed to light. 

(a)  

Naturally occurring ____ elements within the sediment (primarily potassium (K), uranium (U) and thorium (Th)) release radiation in the form of alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. When sediment is buried, radiation ____ within traps within mineral ____, and builds up over time. When exposed to sunlight, however, this radiation is released. By analysing the amount of radiation trapped within a grain, and the rate at which this radiation is being ___, we can estimate the amount of time a grain has been buried and away from light. 

(a)  

The rate at which radiation is emitted from the sediment matrix is called the ‘___ ___’. This can be measured in the field using ___ spectrometry, or can be measured in the lab.

(a)  

·       Biogeography = the study of the distribution of _____ and ____  in ____ space and through ____ time.

·       It’s a tuple of individual:species:time:location.

·       Tuple = a __ ___ with multiple parts.

(a)  

·       Culturomic biogeography = studying ____ behaviour and ___ trends via ___ analysis to work out biogeographical patterns/changes.

(a)  

·       GBIF = Global Biodiversity Information Facility. A website and database which ____ and collates biodiversity data.

·       National schemes usually send their data upwards to GBIF – the UK’s version is the National ___ ____ ____.

·       The basic unit of data in GBIF is the record – 1 individual of 1 species in 1 place at 1 time.

(a)  

·       Bioclimatic niche = niche thinking applied to the ___ in which a species lives. Includes temperature, precipitation, ___ and variation.

·       Bioclimatic niche models = the ___ ____ which has the right combination of values for all climate variables. It is very simplified, but if global temperatures rise by a few degrees, many places that are currently too cold for a species to tolerate or within the species’ tolerance will change to being either inside or outside the tolerance ____. As a consequence, the range of the species will shift in location as a function of temperature.

(a)  

·       If species distributions in nature are largely determined by ____ tolerance, then the two niches (___ niche + actual ecological niche) should be very ___. If something else other than climate is constraining native ranges then the niche calculated from the introduced range alone should be much ___.

(a)