Reading processes have been explained from

three perspectives: ___, ___, and ___.

(a)  

From structural perspectives, the (a)   or the outside-in views consider reading as a process of decoding written symbols into their aural equivalents to comprehend the text.

Researchers advocating the (a)   model criticize the structural view for downplaying the significance of contextual comprehension factors, and emphasize the role of interaction between readers' background knowledge / schema and the text in reading, or what they call a psycholinguistic guessing game.

From the (a)   view, reading is considered as a process of active meaning construction that requires both linguistic information from the text and readers' background knowledge.

According to Grabe (2014), reading abilities consist of ____ processes (e.g., automatic word recognition skills, lexico‐syntactic processing, and semantic processing of the immediate clause into relevant meaning units) and ____ processing (e.g., using strategies to understand more difficult texts, recognizing related and thematic information, forming a text model of comprehension, and creating a situation model of reading by using inferencing, background knowledge, strategic processing, and context constraints)

(a)  

Mayer’s (2005) ___ ____ ____ ___ ____ proposes three components required for meaningful learning: selecting suitable words and pictures, organizing them into coherent pictorial and verbal models, and integrating them with each other and appropriate prior knowledge.

(a)  

From the metacognitive approach, researchers examined reading (a)   among various text-based and online/mobile contexts.

Researchers from the (a)   view posit that reading is a social skill requiring active participation and interaction of learners involved.

_____ ______ ____ incorporated into self-developed courseware have promoted individualized self-paced L2 learning and problem-solving L2 learning models by providing customized instruction / feedback.

(a)  

Online reading activities offer d____ s____ by using a wide range of tools such as dictionaries, annota-tions, glosses, concordances, reading‐level classification tools, speech synthesis/recognition technology, and mobile devices.

(a)