The part where we step on

The layer is made up of hard, solid rocks

The layer extends from the continental part to the oceanic part

This layer is 2,885 km thick

This is where the geologic events like volcanic activity and earthquakes happen which give us the idea that the outer part of this is solid.

A fluid layer about 2,400 km thick

The layer is mostly composed of iron and nickel

A magma like liquid layer that surrounds the Earth's inner core

Creates the Earth's magnetic field

The innermost geologic layer of the Earth

Has a radius of about 1,220 km

The solid part of the mantle

The somewhat solid part but behaves like a plastic and deformed like a piece of clay

The one that separates the crust and the mantle

The one that separates the mantle and the outer core

The one that separates the outer core and inner core

The inner core is about __ of the Earth's radius

The inner core is about __ of the Moon's radius

Made of granite-type rocks and around 50-100 km thick

Consists of basaltic rock and is about 5-8 km thick

The rigid outer layer of the Earth

Includes the crust and the uppermost mantle

Located below the lithosphere where the convection of molten rock happens

Located in depths between 100-350 km

Consists of hot, weak, and easily deformed rock

Density of Continental Crust

Density of Oceanic Crust

This theory says the lithosphere is divided into 12 large sections and about 20 smaller ones

States that the tectonic plates "float" on the more dense, fluid-like asthenosphere

This theory explains everything the continental drift theory explained, and how the continents moved

Proposed by Alfred Wegener, a German climatologist in his book The Origins of Continents and Ocean in 1915

Wegener expanded his theory and presented evidence that Pangaea had really existed during the Permian period. However due to lack of evidence, this theory was not accepted

Earth is compared to a grape that contracted into a raisin due to the cooling process that occured after the Big Bang

Scientists believed that the cooling caused the contraction and pressure that allowed some parts of the crust to rise and form mountains, while others buckled downward and formed ocean basins and other depressions

The plates are constantly moving relative to one another as they ride atop the asthenosphere

States that the continents fit together like jigsaw puzzles

Widely regarded as the most important geological theory ever developed

One of the driving forces behind plate tectonics. Proposed in 1929

As the mantle heats up, its density decreases and eventually rises. As the material cools, it would sink, exhibiting a circular behavior similar to conveyor belts

Theorizes that the pressure of heated magma broke the continents apart, causing the pieces to drift in opposite directions

Theorizes that gravity and plate themselves are responsible for plate tectonics via the subduction process

The rocks in the subduction zone are older, hence they are denser than those in the inner layers. Due to gravity, the old rocks or slabs subduct into the mantle beneath them, pulling the rest of the plate, causing plate tectonic movement

2 main theories on the mechanism of plate tectonics

Because of gravitational pull, the denser slab sinks faster than a less dense slab and exerts more force on the plate attached to it

States that plate tectonics is caused by subduction

He conducted echo-sounding surveys in the Pacific using the work of Arthur Holmes

States that the seafloor was formed by mid-ocean ridges that spread in both directions

He proposed that new oceanic crust spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt-like motion

The ocean basins were constantly being recycled - new ones are being created while old ones are destroyed

Explain why the earth remains the same size, why there is so little accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are younger compared to continental ones

3 Types of Transform Faults

3 Types of Convergence Boundaries

3 Types of Plate Boundaries

How long did Pangaea last?

Two continents that Pangaea split into

Known as the destructive plate boundary

Known as the constructive plate boundary

Known as the transverse plate boundary

Known as the conservative plate boundary

A radio positioning and time-transfer system that provides 3D Positioning and navigation services

It has numerous geoscience applications, such as volcano monitoring, groundwater monitoring, and glacier melting monitoring

A method of inverting seismological data to obtain a 3D image of anomalies in seismic wave velocity within the media they traverse

Based on the fundamental principle that seismic wave velocities are expected to change as they cross regions on the Earth's mantle

A point where three plate boundaries meet

Uses sound waves to find and identify the objects in the water

Determines the depth of the water

The region between an oceanic trench and the associated volcanic arc and is found at convergent margins

The instrument used to determine the direction of magnetic poles and the magnetic latitude at the time the rock was formed

The study of ancient magnetic fields

The study of the extended climatic conditions of past geological conditions

The magnetic mineral in the rock layers proves that Earth’s magnetic poles have reversed multiple times over a geologic period of time at the mid-ocean ridges. Once heated materials are produced, magnetic materials align themselves with Earth’s magnetic field

• Wegener reconstructed old climatic zones using the distribution of specific rock types to determine the distribution of climates in ancient times to demonstrate the apparent shifting of climatic belts over time

• Geographers noticed that the coastlines of several continents, specifically Africa and South America, would perfectly fit together

• They noticed the presence of various geologic features that abruptly end at one continent’s coast and appear on the continents across the Atlantic

• This gained credibility when scientists discovered great coal deposits in Antarctica that could prove that fauna and flora have abundantly dominated the now iced part of the planet

• The ice appeared to have moved inland from the oceans, a phenomenon quite unlikely to happen unless there was a landmass where the ocean basis exists

• During the Paleozoic Era, glaciation occurred in a large part of the continents in the Southern Hemisphere

• Certain fossils found on both sides of the Atlantic have a striking similarity that is difficult to explain if the continents were not once connected as one

• Examples of these are the Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus

Lies between two tectonic plates moving toward each other

The place between two plates that move apart

As it moves, the gap between them is filled up by magma, which cools to form new lithospheric rock

Refers to the area where they slide horizontally past each other. They lie parallel to the direction of plate movement

The denser plate is pushed under the lighter one and a trench is formed. Lining the trenches are volcanoes formed under the ocean

The denser oceanic plates subducts beneath the continental plate

Lining the trenches are volcanoes formed in the continental part

Neither of the plates is pushed under the other, as they have low density

They tend to rise and collide with each other, causing the crust to fracture and shrink

Where mountain ranges are formed

2 Types of Seismic Waves

2 Types of Body Waves

2 Types of Surface Waves

Travels through the Earth

Travels only at the surface of the Earth

Also known as compressional waves, due to their push and pulling

They travel away from the focus of an earthquake where the rocks first fractured by compressing and expanding the rocks as they travel through solids, liquids, and gases

They are the fastest moving waves

They travel in a similar motion to a rope held tight at one end while the other end is lifted rapidly back and forth

Only travels through solids and do not travel through the liquid outer core of the Earth

The movement to object in it's path is side to side instead of up and down. Moves similar to S Waves

Travel much in the same way as waves in water

They have an almost circular pattern to its wave motion

Speed of P-Waves

Speed of S-Waves

The origin of vibrating waves and the location of plater movement

The area on Earth's surface directly proportional to the focus

The measure of the strength of the seismic waves that have been sent out from the focus

A number that is used to measure the size of an earthquake

Used to determine the strength of an earthquake

An instrument that measures the amount of ground motion that an earthquake produces

Occurs at plate boundaries

Occurs at convergent/divergent boundaries and hotspots

Forms at convergent boundaries (continental/continental)

The process where deep magma erupts onto the surface, thereby forming various types of volcanic debris

The release of a gas that was dissolved, trapped, frozen or absorbed in some material.

Rocks formed from solidified magma or lava. As magma cools, it solidifies/crystallizes

Formed from sediments that have been transported, deposited, and converted into rocks

Rocks that formed by the effects of heat, pressure, and shear upon the other types of rocks.

2 types of metamorphism

An extrusive igneous rock that is higher in silica than basalt and lower than rhyolite or felsite

A plutonic rock that is between granite and gabbro in composition

A plutonic rock that is between granite and gabbro in composition

A rare rock, a peridotite that is at least 90% olivine. It's named for Dun Mountain in New Zealand

A fine ingrained so the individual minerals are not visible, but they include pyroxene, plagioclase, feldspar, and olivine

A type of igneous rock that consists of quartz, plagioclase feldspar, and alkali feldspar, plus dark minerals

A dark colored igneous rock that is considered to be the plutonic equivalent of basalt

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Lava that cooled on Earth's surface

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

Formed from magma that cooled beneath the Earth's surface

Made up of rounded pebbles cemented together

Sand grains cemented together into solid stone

Made from silt particles cemented together. Similar to siltstone but with even finer grain size

A fine grained breccia produced by grinding rocks into fine particles, or cataclasis

An extreme metamorphic rock formed by regional metamorphism of basalt under very high pressures and temperatures

A rock of great variety with large mineral grains arranged in wide bands

 the gradual breaking of rocks into pieces through the action of chemical, physical, and biological agents.

process where broken pieces are removed from the parent rock and carried by wind, water, and glaciers.

the conversion of sediments into rocks that have been piled up; the topmost layer presses on those below.​

process where sediments are carried and eventually dropped somewhere.​​

process where sediments are joined together by minerals deposited between them.

Vertical structures that develop when magma flows through fractures

Formed when magma moves along sedimentary bedding surfaces. They are usually large and horizontal, but some may be oriented differently. Exists where the layers of rocks have been tilted

Patters of cracks that form when molten rock cools, resulting in generally 6 sided columns made of basalt

Formed when viscous magma is intruded between shallow sedimentary layers

Creates a dome-shaped structure on the surface

Largest intrusive igneous rock structure, with an exposure more than 100km^2

What are the types of Igneous activity and plate tectonics

When the leading edge of two converging plates is an oceanic plate, a great amount of crust rich in water is carried deep within the Earth

Refers to an area where seafloor spreading occurs. Tectonic plates move away from each other, causing the lithosphere to be pulled apart and reducing pressure on the rocks below the lithosphere.

How are Earth's rocks deformed?

Pampanira ng Streak (Pick 2)