same as anywhere else, refers to the

externally visual attributes of the system.

(a)  

is the way of practical implementation which results in realization of

architectural specifications of a computer system.

(a)  

can be considered as a

catalog of tools available for any operator using the system, while

Organization will be the way the system is structured so that all those

cataloged tools can be used, and that in an efficient fashion.

(a)  

The First Generation

(a)  

ENIAC

(a)  

designed and constructed at the University of Pennsylvania, was

the world’s first general purpose electronic digital computer.

(a)  

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer),

designed and constructed at the (a)   , was

the world’s first general purpose electronic digital computer.

was the world’s first general purpose electronic digital computer.

(a)  

a professor of electrical engineering at the

University of Pennsylvania, and John Eckert, one of his

graduate students, proposed to build a general-purpose

computer using vacuum tubes for the BRL’s application

(a)  

John Mauchly, a professor of electrical engineering at the

University of Pennsylvania, and (a)   , one of his

graduate students, proposed to build a general-purpose

computer using vacuum tubes for the BRL’s application

John Mauchly, a professor of electrical engineering at the

University of Pennsylvania, and John Eckert, one of his

graduate students, proposed to build a (a)   for the BRL’s application

John Mauchly, a (a)   at the

University of Pennsylvania, and John Eckert, one of his

graduate students, proposed to build a general-purpose

computer using vacuum tubes for the BRL’s application

John Mauchly, a professor of electrical engineering at the

University of Pennsylvania, and John Eckert, one of his

graduate students, proposed to build a general-purpose

computer using vacuum tubes for the

(a)  

The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer),

designed and constructed at the University of Pennsylvania, was

the world’s first general purpose electronic digital computer. The

project was a response to U.S. needs during

(a)  

(a)  

The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC was extremely tedious. But suppose a program could be represented in a form suitable for storing in memory alongside the data. 

(a)  

The Second Generation:

(a)  

The first major change in the electronic computer came

with the replacement of the vacuum tube by the

transistor.

(a)  

The transistor is smaller, cheaper, and dissipates less

heat than a vacuum tube but can be used in the same

way as a vacuum tube to construct computers.

(a)  

Unlike the vacuum tube, which requires wires, metal

plates, a glass capsule, and a vacuum, the transistor is a

solid-state device, made from silicon.

(a)  

(a)  

The first major change in the electronic computer came

with the replacement of the vacuum tube by the (a)   .

The first major change in the electronic computer came

with the replacement of the (a)   by the

transistor.

is smaller, cheaper, and dissipates less

heat than a vacuum tube but can be used in the same

way as a vacuum tube to construct computers.

(a)  

Unlike the (a)   , which requires wires, metal

plates, a glass capsule, and a vacuum, the transistor is a

solid-state device, made from silicon.

Unlike the vacuum tube, which requires wires, metal

plates, a glass capsule, and a vacuum, the (a)   is a

solid-state device, made from silicon.

The Third Generation:

(a)  

A single, self-contained transistor is called a discrete

component.

(a)  

Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, electronic

equipment was composed largely of discrete

components—transistors, resistors, capacitors, and so

on.

(a)  

A single, self-contained transistor is called a

(a)  

Throughout the (a)   , electronic

equipment was composed largely of discrete

components—transistors, resistors, capacitors, and so

on.

Designing for Performance

(a)  

a processor can simultaneously work

on multiple instructions

(a)  

The processor looks ahead in the instruction code

fetched from memory and predicts which branches,

or groups of instructions, are likely to be processed

next.

(a)  

The processor analyzes which

instructions are dependent on each

other’s results, or data, to create an

optimized schedule of instructions.

(a)  

In fact, instructions are scheduled to be

executed when ready, independent of

the original program order.

(a)  

This prevents unnecessary delay.

(a)  

Using branch prediction and data flow

analysis, some processors speculatively

execute instructions ahead of their

actual appearance in the program

execution, holding the results in

temporary locations.

(a)  

Microprocessor Speed

(a)  

Increase the number of bits that are retrieved at one time by

making DRAMs “wider” rather than “deeper” and by using

wide bus data paths.

(a)  

Increase the number of bits that are retrieved at one time by

making DRAMs “ (a)   ” rather than “deeper” and by using

wide bus data paths.

Increase the number of bits that are retrieved at one time by

making DRAMs “wider” rather than “ (a)   ” and by using

wide bus data paths.

Change the DRAM interface to make it more efficient by

including a cache10 or other buffering scheme on the DRAM

chip.

(a)  

Reduce the frequency of memory access by incorporating

increasingly complex and efficient cache structures between

the processor and main memory.

(a)  

Increase the interconnect bandwidth between processors and

memory by using higher-speed buses and a hierarchy of buses

to buffer and structure data flow.

(a)  

Increase the hardware speed of the processor.

(a)  

Increase the size and speed of caches that are

interposed between the processor and main

memory.

(a)  

Make changes to the processor organization and

architecture that increase the effective speed of

instruction execution

(a)  

As the density of logic and the clock speed on a chip

increase, so does the power density (Watts/cm2 ).

(a)  

The speed at which electrons can flow on a chip

between transistors is limited by the resistance and capacitance of

the metal wires connecting them; specifically, delay increases as

the RC product increases.

(a)  

Memory speeds lag processor speeds, as

previously discussed.

(a)  

is defined as telling a

computer what to do through a special set of

instructions which are then interpreted by the

computer to perform some task(s).

(a)  

These

instructions can be specified in one or more

programming languages including Java, C, and C++.

(a)