Striated & Voluntary

Striated & Involuntary

Untriated & Involuntary

Muscles use _____ to contract.

Muscles are _______; composed of skeletal
muscle tissue, nervous tissue, blood, and other
connective tissues

__________ are large and are
covered by connective tissue called
endomysium. They contain myofibrils.

________ are grouped (10-100) into fascicles
which are covered by perimysium.

Fibers are grouped (10 - 100) into _________
which are covered by perimysium. Groups of _______ make up the muscle
which is surrounded by epimysium.

Surround and Separate Muscles

Connective tissue that extends beyond the
ends of muscles and becomes what are connect to the periosteum of bones.

Types of Connective Tissue

Connective tissue that covers muscle fibers.

Covers Fascicles

Surrounds the Fascicles that make up Muscle

Sometimes muscles are connected to each
other by broad sheets of connective tissue
called _______.

Each _________ is a single, long,
cylindrical cell.

"Cell membrane" of muscle fibers with many
mitochondria and nuclei

Inside the sarcolemma is ________ "cytoplasm"
that contains myofibrils.

Thin Filaments within Myofibrils. Is a globular protein with myosin binding sites.

Thick Filaments within Myofibrils. Consists of twisted strands with globular cross-bridges projecting outward along strands.

The organization of actin and myosin produces what?

Extends from one Z-Line to the next.

Extends between the myofibrils as transverse tubules

Stored in Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

(Light Bands) made up
of actin filaments are anchored
to Z lines.

I Bands are anchored to these. They are dark lines in the I Bands.

(Dark Bands) are made
up of overlapping thick and thin
filaments.

In the center of A bands are these (One is a Dark Line & One are the two white lines on the sides of the dark line) consisting of myosin
filaments only.

Actin & Myosin

A-Band, I-Band, & Z-Line

The _________ and
________ are involved in triggering
a muscle contraction when the fiber is
stimulated.
14

Neurotransmitter for nerve & muscle.

This (theory)
describes muscle contraction.

________ proteins
cover the binding sites when calcium ions
(Ca2+) are absent.

Tropomysosin and troponin proteins
cover the binding sites when ______ ions
(Ca2+) are absent.

________ bind and
pull on the actin filaments, causing
the sarcomeres to shorten.

Myosin crossbridges attach to ________ filaments and bend, pulling on the _____ filaments; then release and attach to
the next _________ and pull
again. Exposed binding sites on ______ allow the muscle
contraction cycle to occur

Types of Muscle Attachment

ATP

Creatine Phosphate

Sugar

Aerobic Respiration

Anaerobic Respiration

Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction

Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction from Best to Worst

The amount of oxygen the liver cells need/require to convert accumulated lactic acid into glucose, plus the amount that muscle cells need to resynthesize ATP and Creatine Phosphate to their original concentration. This could take several hours.

Red Fibers, Need Oxygen, Aerobic Respiration, Slow-Twitch

White Fibers, Bulk Up, Anaerobic Respiration, Fast-Twitch

When muscles lose the ability to contract during strenuous exercise. This usually arises from accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle.

When you feel fatigued vs. When you actually are. (Your body only knows so much of what it can do because your brain makes you think you're done.) "Can't do it" - Long before you're done.

Mediated by factors or signals from the central nervous system. Commonly Associated with Calcium or Electrolyte Imbalance.

40% - 50% of muscle contraction energy is lost within this. Muscles produce a good chunk of this.

The amount of stimulus needed to contract the muscle.

Single, Short Contraction involving a few motor units.

Brief delay between stimulation & contraction. _____III_____

Membrane Potential

When a muscle fiber contracts, it contracts to its full extent.

A twitch on top of another twitch.

Constant Muscle Contraction

A motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls make up a _______. When stimulated, the muscle fibers of the _______ contract all at once.

Increase in the number of activated motor units within a muscle at higher intensities of stimulation.

Achieved by a continuous state of sustained contraction of motor units within a muscle. (Flabby vs. Hard)

Immovable end of a muscle.

Moveable End of Muscle & Contraction pulls this toward the origin.

The muscle doing the majority of the work.

"Helper Muscles"

Opposing Muscles to the Prime Movers

Lack Striations, elongated cells, tapered ends, walls of hollow organs, responsible for peristalsis.

Mechanism of contraction in the heart. Essentially the same thing as skeletal & Smooth Muscle, but some differences. Transverse Tubules & can contract for longer periods of time. Self-Exciting/Contracts as a Unit.

Named according to size, shape, location, action, number of attachments, or direction of fibers.

The site where the motor neuron and
muscle fiber meet is the _______.

The muscle fiber membrane
forms a _______ in which
the sarcolemma is tightly folded
and where nuclei and mitochondria
are abundant.

The motor neuron contain numerous
________ storing
neurotransmitters.

Some muscles have more than one insertion & origin.

Composed of neurons & neuroglia.

Transmit Nerve Impulses along nerve fibers to other neurons.

Nucleus of Neuron that makes the decision on whether or not to fire.

______ carry impulses from other neurons (or from receptors) toward the cell body/Information comes into the cell from this.

______ transmits the impulse
away from the cell body & splits into terminals. (1 mm-1 m+ long)

Larger axons are enclosed by ___________ provided by Schwann cells and are myelinated fibers.

Narrow gaps in the myelin sheath
between Schwann cells are called __________. These can make impulses travel faster, almost teleporting.

Parts of Neurons

Made up of bundles of nerve fibers.

Carries out a variety of functions to aid and protect components of the Nervous System.

Brain & Spinal Chord

Info into the Nervous System. Nerves in the Body that connect the CNS to the rest of the body. Separate Sensory and Motor Divisions.

Parts of the Peripheral Nervous System.

Carries Info Away from the CNS

Parts of the Motor Division of the PNS

Conscious Control (Skeletal Muscle)

Unconscious Control (Smooth & Cardiac Muscle Glands)

At the ends of Peripheral Nerves, Gather Information, and Convert into Impulses

Produce Myelin on Axons

Small Cells that phagocytize (Devour) bacterial cells and cellular debris.

A type of tissue in your brain and spinal cord (central nervous system) that plays a crucial role in allowing you to function normally from day to day. It DOES NOT consists of high amounts of Myelin Sheath

Found in the deeper tissues of the brain (subcortical or PNS). It contains nerve fibers (axons). Many of these nerve fibers are surrounded by a type of sheath or covering called myelin. Myelin gives this its color.

Axon Terminals Go to These

Part of the Axon. These can go to motor end plates on muscles, or other Dendrites.

Junction b/t two communicating neurons at the axon terminals. This can by Nerve to Nerve, Nerve to Muscle, or Nerve to Gland.

Site in which impulse must be conveyed.

Chemicals that carry signals across the Synaptic Cleft. Excitatory or Inhibitory.

Insulation or "Hot Dog Bun" on the Axon that can increase the speed of a neural response. The space between these are important.

Humans have larger.....

Also known as Afferent & Carry Signals TO the Brain (ARRIVE)

Also known as Efferent & Carry Signals AWAY from the Brain (EXIT)

Two Types of Neuron Classification

Bipolar, Unipolar, & Multipolar Neurons are classified as these. Most are Multipolar.

Sensory, Interneurons, & Motor Neurons are classified as these.

There are many types of Neurotransmitters

Is usually polarized with a difference in electrical charge on each side. + on outside and - on inside.

Inside of membrane

Outside of membrane

Most Important + Charged Ions

Most Important - Charged Ions

Gives Charge to the Membrane, Cleans up Messes, and Controls the regulation of another answer.

The separation of charge on a cell membrane. (When Equal)

If sufficiently strong, depolarization occurs and this is achieved. Na⁺ Is let in until it is too much and hits this point before a ton is let in at once.

Inward movement of Na⁺ depolarizes membrane, causing this. The trigger for action potential.

May be reached when a series of subthreshold stimuli summate and reach and surpassed threshold. (Ex. Domino Tipping Point & A ton of Na⁺ Come In)

Conduct impulses along entire membrane surface.

Conduct impulses from one Node of Ranvier to the next.

Impulse almost skips through myelinated fibers to make it almost faster than the conduction of unmyelinated because of the Nodes on Ranvier.

The Nervous System is an....

Dependent upon how neurons signal each other and are organized in the brain and spinal chord.

Different Types of Impulse Processing

Excitation vs. Inhibition

Over Time or Space

Covergent or Divergent

Bone, Meninges, Blood, Cerebrospinal Fluid

Dura Mater, Arachnoid, & Piamater

Acts as a Brain Barrier

Affects blood because when dissolved into blood, it chemically reacts with water. This produces carbonic acid, Ph and biocarbonate ions.

H₂O + CO₂ ------> H₂CO₅ ------> H⁺ + HCO_3^-

Has special capillaries to prevent leaking and has to go through the Cell Membrane.

The Brain has special capillaries to prevent leaking. This has to go through the _______.

The Brain has special capillaries to prevent leaking because the brain is a _______. So by adding other blood, it would mess up your brain processes.

The Brain has special capillaries to prevent leaking because the brain is a chemical machine. So by adding ________, it would mess up your brain processes.

Links the spinal cord and higher brain levels. Controls cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, visual, and auditory reflexes. Consists of medulla, pons & midbrain.

Parts of the Diacephalon

Reinforces voluntary motor behavior initiated by motor cortex. “Relay station” and synaptic integrating center for sensory input. Helps direct attention to stimuli of interest. Capable of crude awareness of sensations but cannot distinguish their location or intensity.

Link between cerebrum and lower autonomic centers. Link between autonomic nervous and endocrine systems. Integrating center for homeostatic function. Brain area most involved in directly regulating internal environment. (Water Balance)

Biological Clock - Secretes Melatonin

Assist Cerebrum in motor and sensory integration, planning/coordination of skeletal muscle activity, controls posture, & maintains balance.

Higher Thought, 80% of total brain weight, 2 hemispheres connected by corpus callosum, divided into lobes, & outer surface is the convoluted cerebral cortex which contains 75% of neurons in the NS.

Both _________ CROSS OVER in the spinal chord or brain stem, so the centers in the right hemisphere are interpreting or controlling the left side of the body, and vice versa.

Functional area of the brain overlap, but the cortex can generally be divided into 3 areas called......

The left side of the brain controls the right and vice versa.

Contains Visual Cortex

Houses the Auditory Cortex

Reception/Perception of Somatosensory Input

Voluntary Motor Movement

Part of the Parietal Lobe that delimits the boundary between motor and the sensory cortices, as well as the boundary between the frontal and parietal lobes.

Awareness of external world & self states. (maximal alertness, wakefulness, sleep, & coma)

Consist of the cranial and spinal nerves that arise from the CNS and travel to the remainder of the body. Made of the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems.

Oversees Voluntary Activities

Oversees involuntary activity & is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS

Part of the Autonomic Nervous System that mainly stimulates "rest, repair, & digestive" activities.

Part of the Autonomic Nervous System that mainly stimulates "fright, fight, flight" responses.

Sensory receptors detect changes in the environment and send impulses through the _________ of the PNS to the Brain.

(Type, Location, Intensity) Is formed in the brain based on sensory input

Widely distributed throughout body

_____ of sensory organs IN HEAD

Each receptor is most sensitive to a ______ change, although it may react to an extreme level of other factors.

Are sensitive to change in chemical concentration (Nose and Mouth)

Are sensitive to change in chemical concentration (Nose and Mouth)

Detect intense mechanical, thermal, or chemical changes that can damage tissue.

Respond to temperature differences.

Respond to changes in pressure or movement (In ear and skin)

In the eyes respond to light energy

Feelings that occur when the brain interprets sensory impulses

Used by the brain to create the impression that the sensation is coming from the area of stimulation. At the same time as the sensation is being formed.

Sensory impulses are sent at decreasing rates until receptors fail to send impulses unless there is a change in strength of the stimulus.

DO NOT adapt, or adapt SLOWLY

DO Adapt; May have "Off" Signal

Frequency of action potentials, which are triggered.

_________ of location detection depends on receptor field size and density. Can be reduced when nearby receptors are responding to weak stimuli. Can be enhanced through lateral inhibition of nearby receptors by the receptor that reacts to the strongest stimulation.

Receptors associated with skin, muscles, joints, and viscera

3 Types of Receptors to Detect Touch & Pressure

Associated with touch and pressure

Abundant in hairless areas that are VERY sensitive to touch

Resemble an onion and function to detect DEEP Pressure

Temperature Senses, react within a range of temperatures, adapt quickly, and also stimulate pain receptors at extreme temps.

Consists of free nerve endings that are stimulated when tissues are damaged, and adapt little, if at all. Many stimuli can affect these.

The only receptors in the visceral that produce sensations

Occurs because the common nerve pathways leading from skin and internal organs

Type A Pain. This, Myelinated Fibers that carry impulses rapidly and cease when stimulus stops.

Type B or C pain. Thin, Unmyelinated fibers that conduct impulses slowly and continue sending impulses when stimulus stops.

Released in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord or in the brain endorphins from the pituitary and block pain signals.

Associated with complex structures located in the head. Include senses of smell, taste, hearing, equalibrium, and sight.

Smell Receptors (BLANK) and Taste Receptors are chemoreceptors

Taste + Smell + Spicy/Wintergreen + Texture/Feel

Taste + Smell + Spicy/Wintergreen + Texture/Feel

Are organs of taste. Concentrated around papillae of the tongue & scattered throughout the mouth and pharynx.

Modified Epithelial Cells that function as chemoreceptors. Contain taste hairs and taste pores.

Portions sensitive to taste and protrude from openings called taste pores.

Chemicals must be dissolved in this in order to be tasted

Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Unami (Savory)

External, Middle, and Inner Sections. Mechanoreceptors.

Consists of the auricle, which collects the sound that then travels the external acoustic meatus.

(Tympanic Cavity) Begins with the tympanic membrane (eardrum), and is an air-filled space housing auditory ossicles.

Malleus, Incus, & Stapes. Transmit and Amplify Sound Waves.

(Eustachian) Tube connects the middl ear to the throat (Pharnyx) to help maintain equal air pressure in both sides of the eardrum.

Made up of membranous labyrinth inside an osseous labyrinth.

Coiled and Houses the organ of hearing while the semicircular canals function in the equilibrium. Fluid-Filled

Comes from two different organs. Organs of the Static and Dynamic Equilibrium.

Senses the position of the head and helps to maintain stability and posture in response to gravity and linear acceleration. Located in Vestibule.

Helps to maintain orientation when the head rotates. Located in the Ampulia.

Detect motion of the head. Fluid-Filled Tubes with Jelly Cap

Detects Horizontal Forces

Detects Vertical Forces

Accessory organs, namely the lacrimal apparatus, eyelids, and extrinsic muscles. Aid the eye in its function.

Protect Eye, Lined with conjunctiva, and made of the thinnest skin.

Produce tears that lubricate & cleanse eye.

Attach to the sclera and move the eye in all directions.

Transparent Outer Layer of the Eye

White anterior eye

Pierce the Sclera at posterior of the eye.

Vascular, darkly pigmented part of the eye. Functions to nourish tissues of the eye & keep inside of dark eye.

Focusses light and facilitates focusing (accommodation).

Light is focussed on this

A lot of cone sensors in a bunch of fibers

Adjust amount of light entering eye

A hole in the eye that the light enters

The point of sharpest vision retina.

Thick lense, ciliary muscle fibers contracted, suspensory ligaments relaxed

Thin lense, ciliary muscle fibers relaxed, suspensory ligaments taut