A teacher assigns students to take notes using either a laptop or pen and measures their test performance. What type of design is this?

A company tests whether happy music or classical music increases productivity in their employees. Which variable would need to remain constant to ensure internal validity?

In a study on cat behavior, researchers randomly assign cats to wear collars with or without bells to see how it affects their hunting success. What aspect of the study ensures internal validity?

Researchers study whether sitting posture (straight vs. slouched) affects confidence levels in interviews. The results show that posture only impacts confidence when the interviewer is friendly. What type of effect does this illustrate?

In an experiment, participants watch either a comedy or a drama and rate how funny they find a subsequent commercial. The researchers find that comedy viewers rate the commercial funnier, but drama viewers don’t. What causal criteria does this study establish?

A study shows that people rate food as tastier when it's served on colorful plates rather than plain white ones. Which threat to validity is most likely if participants know the study's goal?

Two groups of people taste the same soup but rate it differently after being told it contains different ingredients. What aspect of experimental design does this highlight?

A researcher studies if people spend more time shopping in a store with a relaxing aroma versus no aroma. What would strengthen the causal claim in this study?

A study finds that drinking hot chocolate makes people friendlier, but only in winter. How might researchers improve the generalizability of their results?

Participants in a sleep study are kept awake all night and then tested on memory tasks. Results show poor performance, but researchers suspect fatigue. How could they address this confound?

A study shows that students remember words better when they associate them with personal experiences. What would make this study more robust?

What is the primary difference between quasi-experiments and true experiments?

Which of the following is an example of a nonequivalent control group design?

A pizza company tests if free toppings increase customer satisfaction. Half the customers get free toppings, and the other half do not. What would be a valid dependent variable?

A coffee shop tests if jokes printed on coffee cups improve tips. If participants in one condition also get better service, what internal validity threat exists?

To test if wearing superhero costumes improves kids’ creativity, researchers measure how many creative ideas kids generate while wearing costumes versus normal clothes. What aspect of the study supports internal validity?

What is a major threat to internal validity in quasi-experiments with independent groups?

In small-N designs, which type involves introducing an intervention to one behavior at a time across several contexts or individuals?

A researcher uses a reversal design to evaluate a new therapy. What must they demonstrate to support causal claims?

Which of the following is true of interrupted time-series designs?

A study evaluates the effect of a later school start time on student sleep duration. Which design would track the same students' sleep patterns before and after the start time change?

What is a disadvantage of small-N designs?

In quasi-experiments, which validity is prioritized due to the lack of random assignment?

Which of the following best describes a multiple-baseline design?

A researcher conducts a study on the effects of background music on productivity in a coffee shop. Participants work with either no music, classical music, or pop music playing. They measure productivity based on the number of tasks completed. What is the most likely potential confound in this design?

A gym introduces a new workout program and compares results to an older program. Participants are randomly assigned, but most of those in the older program drop out halfway through. What threat to internal validity does this illustrate?

A teacher tests a new study technique and finds no difference between groups. She later realizes both groups were taking a class right before the test. What might explain the null result?

During a study on relaxation techniques, a news event causes stress levels to spike among participants. What validity threat does this situation illustrate?

A researcher tests if dogs' obedience improves with praise versus treats. Dogs with high baseline obedience show no improvement with either. What explains this?

In a mindfulness study, participants take the same anxiety test before and after training. Scores improve, but researchers suspect practice effects. How can this testing threat be avoided?

Participants evaluate food samples in a study on presentation. Halfway through, the researcher realizes some plates have dents. What threat does this demonstrate?

A student compares memory retention using flashcards versus lecture notes. Groups differ significantly in study habits. What design choice could improve internal validity?

A daycare tracks aggression in toddlers before and after introducing a new toy. Results show a decrease in aggression. Which threat should be considered?

During a study on the effects of meditation, participants guess they’re expected to relax and self-report lower stress. What is this an example of?

In a study comparing diets, participants in the low-carb group eat fewer calories than the low-fat group. What threat does this illustrate?

A researcher evaluates a new app for anxiety but realizes mid-study that scores are improving across all groups. Which factor might explain this?

A coffee shop tests if customer satisfaction improves based on two factors: music type (jazz or pop) and lighting (bright or dim). What does this factorial design allow the shop to investigate?

A company tests three levels of an ad (humorous, informative, emotional) and two colors (red, blue). What type of design does this represent?

A fast-food chain studies the effect of menu design (photos vs. text) and pricing (discounted vs. standard) on sales. If both factors increase sales independently, what result would this indicate?

A gaming company tests if difficulty level (easy vs. hard) and character type (warrior vs. wizard) affect player enjoyment. What conclusion could be drawn from marginal means?

A daycare tests how toy type (educational vs. non-educational) and playtime length (short vs. long) influence creativity. What result would indicate a main effect of playtime length?

Researchers evaluate if lighting (natural vs. artificial) and seating type (individual vs. shared) impact productivity. What graph pattern indicates no interaction?

A tech company studies if app color scheme (dark vs. light) and notification type (email vs. push) affect user satisfaction. Which design type would allow participants to experience all conditions?

A psychologist tests whether mood (positive, neutral, negative) and setting (indoor vs. outdoor) influence memory recall. How many independent variables are in this design?

A car manufacturer examines if engine type (electric vs. gas) and road condition (smooth vs. rough) impact fuel efficiency. What does a significant interaction imply?

A gym evaluates the impact of workout type (cardio vs. strength) and music genre (rock, pop, classical) on session enjoyment. What is the factorial notation for this study?

Gabriel is conducting a study with a 2 x 4 within-subjects design. Based on this information, how many treatment conditions does Gabriel’s study have?

Gabriel plots his findings in a line graph as shown in Figure 1. Based on this graph, what can you likely conclude about Gabriel’s findings?

In Gabriel’s study, his first IV is gender (man, woman) and his second IV is room colour (pink, blue, yellow, green). Which is the following is not a treatment condition in Gabriel’s study?