diagnosis

prognosis (the expected course/outcome),

etiology

diagnosis, prognosis and etiology

Most insurance companies require a DSM diagnosis before they approve coverage for mental health treatment.

The DSM provides detailed explanations of the underlying causes of each listed psychological disorder.

The DSM is designed primarily to offer treatment recommendations and intervention plans for clinicians.

The DSM organizes disorders based on how frequently they occur in the general population, listing the most common ones first.

It takes a categorical approach, which may oversimplify psychological conditions that actually exist along a spectrum.

It focuses on symptom checklists but does not provide a way to assess the severity of those symptoms across different individuals.

It relies on diagnosis labels but does not include specific guidelines for how to treat each disorder once diagnosed.

It organizes disorders by categories but does not prioritize the role of social and cultural factors in the diagnostic process.

DSM-5

DSM-3

DSM-10

DSM-8

A clinician determines that a client either meets or does not meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder based on a defined set of symptoms.

A psychologist rates a client’s level of anxiety on a scale from 1 to 10 to assess the severity of their symptoms.

A therapist tracks fluctuations in mood intensity across several weeks to understand the client’s emotional patterns.

A psychiatrist uses a personality inventory to identify how traits like neuroticism or extraversion contribute to the client’s emotional experiences.

A dimensional approach, which assesses psychological disorders along a continuum of severity.

A descriptive approach, which focuses only on listing symptoms without organizing them into broader diagnostic categories.

A diagnostic approach, which emphasizes using structured interviews to confirm the presence of specific disorders.

A prescriptive approach, which organizes psychological disorders based on recommended treatment strategies.

A psychologist rates the severity of depressive symptoms on a scale from mild to severe based on how often and intensely the symptoms occur.

A clinician determines that a client either meets or does not meet the official diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder.

A psychiatrist checks off a symptom checklist to confirm the presence of at least five out of nine criteria required for a diagnosis of depression.

A therapist uses a diagnostic manual to decide which specific disorder label applies to the client based on symptom clusters.

There is no clear objective threshold for determining when a person’s symptoms are severe enough to require a formal diagnosis.

This approach fails to recognize that most psychological disorders exist on a continuum rather than in distinct categories

This approach emphasizes biological causes of disorders while ignoring behavioral symptoms.

This approach tends to focus on specific diagnostic labels rather than the severity of individual symptoms.

Jordan has been diagnosed with both generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder, and his clinician notes that symptoms of each disorder appear independently.

Ava exhibits intense mood swings that sometimes look like anxiety and at other times resemble depression, making it difficult for her therapist to determine which single diagnosis fits best.

Malik experiences panic attacks that vary in severity, sometimes occurring once a week and other times several times per day.

Priya’s social anxiety has become so severe that it now includes occasional panic attacks when she is in crowded spaces.

It suggests that the overlap of disorders like depression and anxiety is due to shared diagnostic criteria rather than a true underlying connection.

It proposes that many psychological disorders may reflect a general underlying vulnerability to psychopathology, which helps explain why different disorders often co-occur.

It argues that comorbidity results mainly from environmental factors like trauma or stress, without evidence of shared biological or cognitive risks.

It emphasizes that comorbidity is a misinterpretation of fluctuating symptoms within a single disorder, rather than the presence of multiple disorders.

They usually exhibit fewer co-occurring disorders, with psychological symptoms isolated to one diagnostic category.

They are generally at lower risk for developing psychopathology across their lifespan because their symptoms remain subclinical.

They show higher resilience to environmental stressors, which protects them from long-term psychological distress.

They tend to experience more life impairments, including higher rates of psychiatric hospitalizations and greater functional difficulties.

True

False

50%

25%

35%

15%

Disorders associated with internalizing are more prevalent among people who identify as women, while disorders associated with externalizing are more prevalent among people who identify as men.

Disorders associated with internalizing are equally common across genders, but externalizing disorders are far more prevalent in older adults than in adolescents.

Externalizing disorders are typically more common in people who identify as women, especially after adolescence, when hormonal changes increase risk.

Internalizing disorders are more prevalent in men, largely due to underreporting of emotional difficulties by women in clinical research.

Psychopathology can take different forms depending on cultural norms and expectations, which shape how emotional and behavioral issues are expressed.

Gender differences in psychopathology are entirely the result of biological hormone levels, with no influence from social or cultural factors.

Gender differences in reported disorders are primarily caused by differences in access to psychological testing between men and women.

Gender differences are largely explained by overdiagnosis in women and underdiagnosis in men, due to measurement errors in diagnostic tools.

Jake has a family history of depression and, after going through a painful breakup and losing his job, begins experiencing symptoms of major depression.

Maya feels anxious before every exam, even though she’s always been a top student and hasn’t faced any major personal setbacks.

Luis experiences sudden panic attacks that seem to come out of nowhere, even when life has been going smoothly and stress-free.

Nina develops PTSD symptoms after surviving a severe car accident, despite having no prior mental health vulnerabilities or family history of anxiety.

Sam has long struggled with social anxiety and perfectionism but maintains a stable job and relationships, despite occasional emotional exhaustion.

Jordan has a history of depression, substance abuse, and aggression, has been hospitalized twice, and was recently arrested; his symptoms have progressively worsened over several years.

Emily experiences panic attacks in crowded places and frequently ruminates over negative social interactions but has no criminal or psychiatric record.

Leo has been diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder and works hard to manage his symptoms with therapy, maintaining a steady career.

They are likely to experience specific symptoms that remain stable and isolated within one diagnostic category.

They are at increased risk for multiple types of psychological problems, and these impairments tend to intensify as time goes on.

Their symptoms will likely resolve on their own over time, as the p factor only predicts short-term emotional distress.

They are mainly vulnerable to environmental stressors but have low genetic or biological predisposition to psychopathology.

High p factor scores are associated with a greater likelihood of psychiatric hospitalizations, suicide attempts, and criminal behavior.

Individuals with high p factor scores tend to show worsening impairments over time, rather than improvement.

The p factor explains why people who develop psychopathology in childhood are always destined to have severe disorders in adulthood

The p factor is proposed as a general vulnerability to psychopathology, similar in structure to the concept of general intelligence (g).

Included a number of disorders that tend to occur within specific cultural settings

Removed all culture-specific disorders, arguing they can be fully explained by universal diagnostic categories.

Highlighted the common features of psychological disorders across cultures, describing fewer culturally unique patterns than in earlier editions.

Organized disorders in ways that reflect symptom categories and diagnostic criteria, without introducing a distinct focus on cultural context.

Lena has started hearing voices that no one else can hear, and she believes those voices are giving her special instructions to complete a secret mission

Mateo has become increasingly unresponsive; he sits motionless for long periods, staring blankly, and resists any attempts to move him or engage him in conversation.

Sarah shows very little emotional expression during conversations and often speaks in short, flat sentences, even when discussing personal topics.

Thomas has trouble focusing, struggles with memory tasks, and finds it difficult to organize his thoughts in a logical sequence.

200

100

1000

10

six

months.

14 days

two months

1 year

Michael is convinced that his neighbor is spying on him through hidden cameras, even though there’s no evidence of it.

Selena hears a voice whispering her name when no one else is around, and no external sound is present.

Dorothy feels anxious walking through the city because she believes strangers are giving her secret signals with their body language.

Liam thinks his coworker dislikes him because of the way she looked at him during a meeting, even though she didn’t say anything.

TRUE

FALSE

Jonah has been neglecting basic hygiene, often wearing heavy winter clothes in the summer and forgetting to bathe for days at a time.

Nadia becomes anxious in social situations and avoids speaking to people she doesn’t know well.

Marcus firmly believes that the news anchor is sending him secret personal messages through the TV broadcast.

Priya occasionally feels detached from her surroundings, describing everything as if it looks “strangely unreal.

Diego frequently flaps his arms and waves his hands in repetitive, purposeless ways while sitting alone, even when no one is around.

Lila often neglects personal hygiene, wearing dirty clothes and forgetting to shower for weeks at a time, even when she has access to basic facilities.

Max becomes extremely agitated and starts laughing loudly and clapping his hands in the middle of a serious work meeting, acting playfully without reason.

Sam is convinced that strangers are following her everywhere she goes and keeps changing her route home to avoid them.

Thomas avoids crowded places and feels overwhelming fear when he has to speak in front of a group.

Enlarged ventricles in the brain.

Overactivity of the dopamine system.

Prenatal exposure to viruses or infections.

Deficiency of serotonin as the primary cause.

Degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra.

childhood

late adolescence

20-30s

mid adulthood (35-50)

prenatal development

Having a family history of psychosis.

Showing greater social impairment.

Displaying higher levels of suspiciousness or paranoia.

Exhibiting perfectionistic tendencies and high academic achievement.

Increased physical agitation

Heavy cannabis use during adolescence.

Growing up in an urban environment.

Exposure to the 'schizovirus'

High academic pressure and perfectionistic family expectations.

Experiencing parental divorce during early childhood.

Exposure to trauma or viral infections during the second trimester, a critical period of brain development, may disrupt neural growth and raise the risk of schizophrenia.

Genetic mutations occurring after birth, especially during early childhood brain development, are thought to be the main cause of schizophrenia in people without a family history.

Elevated maternal stress in the third trimester is believed to overstimulate dopamine production in the fetus, increasing the chances of developing schizophrenia later.

Complications during delivery, such as lack of oxygen, are considered the primary prenatal factor contributing to schizophrenia by interfering with brain development.

All of the options have been found to be linked with the onset of schizophrenia

False sensory perceptions experienced without an external source.

Strong emotional reactions triggered by traumatic memories that seem vividly real.

False beliefs about reality that persist even when clear evidence disproves them.

Misinterpretations of real external stimuli, such as mistaking a shadow for a person.

Accusatory messages, such as voices telling the person they are evil or incompetent.

Voices issuing commands to engage in dangerous or harmful behavior.

Harsh voices that criticize the person’s appearance and advise them to change their looks.

Voices that criticize the person’s choices but encourage them to seek religion to find peace and redemption.

Voices that provide detailed factual information about science or current events.

Women are more likely than men to exhibit prominent negative symptoms.

Men are more likely than women to be diagnosed with negative symptoms.

Women typically experience an earlier onset of schizophrenia than men, with symptoms peaking during adolescence.

Schizophrenia occurs equally across all countries, with no difference in symptom presentation between men and women.

Men and women with schizophrenia generally experience the same balance of positive and negative symptoms over the course of the illness.

thought

perceptions

consciousness

mood

attention

Emma repeatedly rubs and taps her knuckles when she’s feeling overwhelmed, believing that this calms her racing thoughts.

Jonah compulsively checks the locks on his door exactly five times before leaving home and feels something bad will happen if he doesn’t.

Lila pulls strands of hair from her scalp multiple times a day, often without realizing it, and feels relief afterward—even though she’s developed bald patches.

Marcus bites his fingernails until they bleed whenever he’s nervous, especially before tests or social events.

They all involve disturbances in perception and sensory processing that lead to psychotic episodes.

They all originate from early childhood trauma and are typically resolved by adulthood without clinical intervention.

They all involve maladaptive, repetitive behaviors that are difficult to control and persist despite negative consequences.

They are all associated with dysregulation in brain reward pathways and may be treated with overlapping forms of cognitive-behavioral therapy.

Persistent fear of contamination by germs or toxins.

Recurrent thoughts about causing accidental harm to others, such as leaving the stove on.

Intrusive fears of committing violent or aggressive acts, even though the person has no desire to act on them.

Intense fear of public speaking and being judged negatively in social situations.

Frequent doubts about whether past events happened the way one remembers, leading to repeated checking for reassurance.

Cleaning

Checking

Counting

Avoiding

Repeating

Sam repeatedly checks that the stove is turned off before leaving the house, often returning three or four times despite knowing it was already off.

Lila experiences intrusive images of harming her pet and silently counts to seven over and over in her head until the anxiety fades, even though she never physically does anything.

Jordan avoids walking near cracks in the sidewalk because he believes doing so will bring harm to his family.

Emily feels compelled to wash her hands dozens of times a day after touching any object that might be contaminated.

Classical and operant conditioning processes that reinforce compulsive behavior.

Mutations in dopamine-regulating genes linked to motor control and reward seeking.

Genetic variations that affect the neurotransmitter glutamate.

Childhood infections that trigger autoimmune responses in the brain.

Excessive social media use during adolescence, particularly on image-based platforms.

Boys and girls are equally likely to develop anorexia nervosa.

Anorexia nervosa is significantly more common in boys than in girls across all age groups.

Anorexia nervosa occurs more frequently in young adulthood than in adolescents, regardless of gender.

Boys who develop anorexia typically experience more severe body dissatisfaction than girls.

Eating disorders are most common in societies where food is scarce and access to nutrition is limited.

The prevalence of eating disorders is largely restricted to high-income, Western countries.

Eating disorders are equally distributed across all cultures, regardless of social or environmental conditions.

Eating disorders are more prevalent in societies where food is abundant and cultural emphasis is placed on body image

any of the three most common eating disorders

binge-eating disorder and bulimia nervosa

binge-eating disorder

Self-induced vomiting after eating

Misuse of laxatives or diuretics.

Excessive exercise

Drinking large amounts of water

Taking extremely hot showers or staying for an hour or more in a sauna to promote sweating

Bulimia nervosa is much more frequently diagnosed in women than in men.

Bulimia nervosa is typically associated with being underweight, often below a healthy BMI.

People with bulimia nervosa rarely feel distress about their behaviors, as purging is seen as a successful way to control weight.

Bulimia nervosa is more common in older adults than in adolescents or young adults.

After getting sick once following a visit to a hospital, a person starts to feel anxious every time they pass a hospital and begins avoiding them, feeling calmer as a result.

A person believes their thoughts can cause bad things to happen, so they engage in rituals to keep others safe, even if there's no evidence those thoughts have power.

Someone grows up in a household where their parents emphasized cleanliness, and they adopt similar habits as part of their routine adult life.

A person hears about a rare disease on the news and becomes extremely focused on researching medical symptoms, though they don’t act on any particular habits or rituals.

Lucas avoids public speaking because he fears being judged negatively by his peers and professors.

Mariana feels intense dread whenever she encounters pigeons, causing her to cross streets or alter her route entirely to avoid seeing them.

Daniel has sudden, unpredictable episodes of rapid heartbeat, dizziness, and breathlessness, leaving him terrified they'll strike again at any moment.

Olivia increasingly restricts her activities, rarely leaving her neighborhood, because she fears being somewhere that escape or assistance might not be easily accessible during a crisis.

A shopping mall

Giving a presentation in front of coworkers.

Taking an elevator to the 40th floor.

Walking near a pond filled with geese.

After repeatedly failing math tests despite studying hard, Sofia stops trying altogether, convinced that no amount of effort will change her poor grades, even though new study strategies are available

Liam constantly thinks, “I’m a failure, the world is unfair, and my future will never improve,” and feels hopeless even when others try to encourage him.

Ethan selectively notices only the negative parts of his day and ignores any successes, reinforcing his belief that nothing good ever happens to him.

Maya tends to catastrophize small setbacks, like thinking one critical comment means everyone dislikes her, which spirals into persistent sadness.

Elena notices she struggles more than her peers on assignments and starts telling herself, “I’m just not as capable or smart as other people.”

Jacob believes, “No matter what I do, the world is unfair, and everything is stacked against me.”

Sara thinks, “It doesn’t matter how hard I try; my future is hopeless and will never get better.”

Leo thinks, “People will probably laugh at me if I mess up this presentation, and I’ll feel humiliated in front of everyone.

Panic disorder

Hypomania

Specific phobia

Major depressive disorder

When something goes wrong, Jordan blames his own personal flaws; but when something goes well, he assumes it’s just due to luck or outside help.

When something goes wrong, Maya blames other people or bad luck; but when something goes well, she credits her own abilities.

When something goes wrong, Alex focuses on how the situation was temporary and likely won’t happen again.

When something goes well, Priya assumes it’s a one-time event and has little to do with her personal strengths.

Disorders associated with internalizing are more prevalent among people who identify as women, while disorders associated with externalizing are more prevalent among people who identify as men.

Disorders associated with internalizing are equally common across genders, but externalizing disorders are far more prevalent in older adults than in adolescents.

Externalizing disorders are typically more common in people who identify as women, especially after adolescence, when hormonal changes increase risk.

Internalizing disorders are more prevalent in men, largely due to underreporting of emotional difficulties by women in clinical research.

Psychopathology can take different forms depending on cultural norms and expectations, which shape how emotional and behavioral issues are expressed.

Gender differences in psychopathology are entirely the result of biological hormone levels, with no influence from social or cultural factors.

Gender differences in reported disorders are primarily caused by differences in access to psychological testing between men and women.

Gender differences are largely explained by overdiagnosis in women and underdiagnosis in men, due to measurement errors in diagnostic tools.

Jake has a family history of depression and, after going through a painful breakup and losing his job, begins experiencing symptoms of major depression.

Maya feels anxious before every exam, even though she’s always been a top student and hasn’t faced any major personal setbacks.

Luis experiences sudden panic attacks that seem to come out of nowhere, even when life has been going smoothly and stress-free.

Nina develops PTSD symptoms after surviving a severe car accident, despite having no prior mental health vulnerabilities or family history of anxiety.

Sam has long struggled with social anxiety and perfectionism but maintains a stable job and relationships, despite occasional emotional exhaustion.

Jordan has a history of depression, substance abuse, and aggression, has been hospitalized twice, and was recently arrested; his symptoms have progressively worsened over several years.

Emily experiences panic attacks in crowded places and frequently ruminates over negative social interactions but has no criminal or psychiatric record.

Leo has been diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder and works hard to manage his symptoms with therapy, maintaining a steady career.

They are likely to experience specific symptoms that remain stable and isolated within one diagnostic category.

They are at increased risk for multiple types of psychological problems, and these impairments tend to intensify as time goes on.

Their symptoms will likely resolve on their own over time, as the p factor only predicts short-term emotional distress.

They are mainly vulnerable to environmental stressors but have low genetic or biological predisposition to psychopathology.

High p factor scores are associated with a greater likelihood of psychiatric hospitalizations, suicide attempts, and criminal behavior.

Individuals with high p factor scores tend to show worsening impairments over time, rather than improvement.

The p factor explains why people who develop psychopathology in childhood are always destined to have severe disorders in adulthood

The p factor is proposed as a general vulnerability to psychopathology, similar in structure to the concept of general intelligence (g).

Included a number of disorders that tend to occur within specific cultural settings

Removed all culture-specific disorders, arguing they can be fully explained by universal diagnostic categories.

Highlighted the common features of psychological disorders across cultures, describing fewer culturally unique patterns than in earlier editions.

Organized disorders in ways that reflect symptom categories and diagnostic criteria, without introducing a distinct focus on cultural context.

Over the past few days, Sarah has been unusually energetic, talking rapidly, starting new projects, and sleeping less, while feeling confident and excited — though she hasn’t lost touch with reality or acted dangerously

Over the past few days, Mark has been unusually sad, withdrawing from friends, feeling hopeless, and struggling to find motivation, even for activities he usually enjoys.

Over the past few days, Anna has been experiencing sudden episodes of intense fear, with a racing heart and dizziness, worrying she might lose control or have a medical emergency.

Over the past few days, James has been increasingly suspicious, convinced that strangers are plotting against him, and withdrawing from social contact to avoid imagined threats.

For the past two years, Mia has felt consistently down, with low energy and low self-esteem, even though she manages daily tasks. She rarely feels joyful, and her mood has become part of her usual life.

Over the past week, Emily has felt unusually energetic, confident, sleeping very little, talking fast, and starting several new projects, even though friends are concerned.

For the past month, Chloe has been deeply sad, withdrawing from activities she usually enjoys, feeling hopeless, and having trouble concentrating on work.

Over the past year, Sophie has had sudden, unpredictable episodes of intense fear, racing heart, and shortness of breath, worrying she might lose control.

True

False

True

False

Disorders associated with internalizing are more prevalent among people who identify as women, while disorders associated with externalizing are more prevalent among people who identify as men.

Disorders associated with internalizing are equally common across genders, but externalizing disorders are far more prevalent in older adults than in adolescents.

Externalizing disorders are typically more common in people who identify as women, especially after adolescence, when hormonal changes increase risk.

Internalizing disorders are more prevalent in men, largely due to underreporting of emotional difficulties by women in clinical research.

Psychopathology can take different forms depending on cultural norms and expectations, which shape how emotional and behavioral issues are expressed.

Gender differences in psychopathology are entirely the result of biological hormone levels, with no influence from social or cultural factors.

Gender differences in reported disorders are primarily caused by differences in access to psychological testing between men and women.

Gender differences are largely explained by overdiagnosis in women and underdiagnosis in men, due to measurement errors in diagnostic tools.

Jake has a family history of depression and, after going through a painful breakup and losing his job, begins experiencing symptoms of major depression.

Maya feels anxious before every exam, even though she’s always been a top student and hasn’t faced any major personal setbacks.

Luis experiences sudden panic attacks that seem to come out of nowhere, even when life has been going smoothly and stress-free.

Nina develops PTSD symptoms after surviving a severe car accident, despite having no prior mental health vulnerabilities or family history of anxiety.

Sam has long struggled with social anxiety and perfectionism but maintains a stable job and relationships, despite occasional emotional exhaustion.

Jordan has a history of depression, substance abuse, and aggression, has been hospitalized twice, and was recently arrested; his symptoms have progressively worsened over several years.

Emily experiences panic attacks in crowded places and frequently ruminates over negative social interactions but has no criminal or psychiatric record.

Leo has been diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder and works hard to manage his symptoms with therapy, maintaining a steady career.

They are likely to experience specific symptoms that remain stable and isolated within one diagnostic category.

They are at increased risk for multiple types of psychological problems, and these impairments tend to intensify as time goes on.

Their symptoms will likely resolve on their own over time, as the p factor only predicts short-term emotional distress.

They are mainly vulnerable to environmental stressors but have low genetic or biological predisposition to psychopathology.

High p factor scores are associated with a greater likelihood of psychiatric hospitalizations, suicide attempts, and criminal behavior.

Individuals with high p factor scores tend to show worsening impairments over time, rather than improvement.

The p factor explains why people who develop psychopathology in childhood are always destined to have severe disorders in adulthood

The p factor is proposed as a general vulnerability to psychopathology, similar in structure to the concept of general intelligence (g).

Included a number of disorders that tend to occur within specific cultural settings

Removed all culture-specific disorders, arguing they can be fully explained by universal diagnostic categories.

Highlighted the common features of psychological disorders across cultures, describing fewer culturally unique patterns than in earlier editions.

Organized disorders in ways that reflect symptom categories and diagnostic criteria, without introducing a distinct focus on cultural context.

Researchers find that early exposure to chronic stress in childhood increases the likelihood of developing anxiety disorders later in life.

A clinician explains that individuals with anxiety disorders often experience racing thoughts, muscle tension, and difficulty sleeping.

A therapist tells a client that, with consistent cognitive-behavioral therapy, their anxiety symptoms are likely to improve over the next six months.

A psychiatrist uses a structured interview to confirm that a patient meets the diagnostic criteria for generalized anxiety disorder.

diagnosis

prognosis (the expected course/outcome),

etiology

diagnosis, prognosis and etiology

Most insurance companies require a DSM diagnosis before they approve coverage for mental health treatment.

The DSM provides detailed explanations of the underlying causes of each listed psychological disorder.

The DSM is designed primarily to offer treatment recommendations and intervention plans for clinicians.

The DSM organizes disorders based on how frequently they occur in the general population, listing the most common ones first.

It takes a categorical approach, which may oversimplify psychological conditions that actually exist along a spectrum.

It focuses on symptom checklists but does not provide a way to assess the severity of those symptoms across different individuals.

It relies on diagnosis labels but does not include specific guidelines for how to treat each disorder once diagnosed.

It organizes disorders by categories but does not prioritize the role of social and cultural factors in the diagnostic process.

DSM-5

DSM-3

DSM-10

DSM-8

A clinician determines that a client either meets or does not meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder based on a defined set of symptoms.

A psychologist rates a client’s level of anxiety on a scale from 1 to 10 to assess the severity of their symptoms.

A therapist tracks fluctuations in mood intensity across several weeks to understand the client’s emotional patterns.

A psychiatrist uses a personality inventory to identify how traits like neuroticism or extraversion contribute to the client’s emotional experiences.

A dimensional approach, which assesses psychological disorders along a continuum of severity.

A descriptive approach, which focuses only on listing symptoms without organizing them into broader diagnostic categories.

A diagnostic approach, which emphasizes using structured interviews to confirm the presence of specific disorders.

A prescriptive approach, which organizes psychological disorders based on recommended treatment strategies.

A psychologist rates the severity of depressive symptoms on a scale from mild to severe based on how often and intensely the symptoms occur.

A clinician determines that a client either meets or does not meet the official diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder.

A psychiatrist checks off a symptom checklist to confirm the presence of at least five out of nine criteria required for a diagnosis of depression.

A therapist uses a diagnostic manual to decide which specific disorder label applies to the client based on symptom clusters.

There is no clear objective threshold for determining when a person’s symptoms are severe enough to require a formal diagnosis.

This approach fails to recognize that most psychological disorders exist on a continuum rather than in distinct categories

This approach emphasizes biological causes of disorders while ignoring behavioral symptoms.

This approach tends to focus on specific diagnostic labels rather than the severity of individual symptoms.

Jordan has been diagnosed with both generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder, and his clinician notes that symptoms of each disorder appear independently.

Ava exhibits intense mood swings that sometimes look like anxiety and at other times resemble depression, making it difficult for her therapist to determine which single diagnosis fits best.

Malik experiences panic attacks that vary in severity, sometimes occurring once a week and other times several times per day.

Priya’s social anxiety has become so severe that it now includes occasional panic attacks when she is in crowded spaces.

It suggests that the overlap of disorders like depression and anxiety is due to shared diagnostic criteria rather than a true underlying connection.

It proposes that many psychological disorders may reflect a general underlying vulnerability to psychopathology, which helps explain why different disorders often co-occur.

It argues that comorbidity results mainly from environmental factors like trauma or stress, without evidence of shared biological or cognitive risks.

It emphasizes that comorbidity is a misinterpretation of fluctuating symptoms within a single disorder, rather than the presence of multiple disorders.

They usually exhibit fewer co-occurring disorders, with psychological symptoms isolated to one diagnostic category.

They are generally at lower risk for developing psychopathology across their lifespan because their symptoms remain subclinical.

They show higher resilience to environmental stressors, which protects them from long-term psychological distress.

They tend to experience more life impairments, including higher rates of psychiatric hospitalizations and greater functional difficulties.

True

False

50%

25%

35%

15%

increase; increase

decrease;

decrease

decrease;increase

increase; decrease

amnesia

dissociative identity disorder

dissociative fugue

dementia

bipolar disorder

An uncontrollable pattern of thought is a compulsion; the repeated performance of coping behavior is an obsession.

An obsession usually begins shortly after a stressful event; a compulsion is inherited behavior.

An uncontrollable pattern of thought is an obsession; the repeated performance of coping behavior is a compulsion.

A compulsion is always accompanied by physical symptoms such as shakiness or headaches; an obsession never is.

Borderline Personality D/O

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality D/O

Dependent Personality D/O

Schizotypal Personality D/O

Narcisstic

Avoidant

Histrionic

Paranoid

classifying psychological disorders

identifying the causes of psychological abnormality

distinguishing sanity from insanity

treating depression

Bulimia nervosa is much more frequently diagnosed in women than in men.

Bulimia nervosa is typically associated with being underweight, often below a healthy BMI.

People with bulimia nervosa rarely feel distress about their behaviors, as purging is seen as a successful way to control weight.

Bulimia nervosa is more common in older adults than in adolescents or young adults.

After getting sick once following a visit to a hospital, a person starts to feel anxious every time they pass a hospital and begins avoiding them, feeling calmer as a result.

A person believes their thoughts can cause bad things to happen, so they engage in rituals to keep others safe, even if there's no evidence those thoughts have power.

Someone grows up in a household where their parents emphasized cleanliness, and they adopt similar habits as part of their routine adult life.

A person hears about a rare disease on the news and becomes extremely focused on researching medical symptoms, though they don’t act on any particular habits or rituals.

After being diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder, Malik begins experiencing symptoms of major depression, including fatigue and hopelessness.

Zoe begins experiencing panic attacks following a car accident, but her symptoms improve after several months of therapy and medication.

Jackson is diagnosed with depression during high school, but years later is diagnosed with alcohol use disorder after a difficult breakup.

Lila receives two different diagnoses from two different clinicians: one says she has bipolar disorder, the other says she has borderline personality disorder.

After experiencing intense physical symptoms while stuck in a crowded subway car, Nadia now avoids public transportation altogether and only travels with someone she trusts.

Jonah starts skipping parties and group hangouts because he feels socially awkward and worries about being judged by others.

Maya insists on triple-checking the locks on all doors and windows every night and becomes restless if she tries to sleep without doing so.

Cameron no longer attends school assemblies because loud noises and flashing lights make him feel overwhelmed and dizzy.

Maria stands completely still for long periods, unresponsive to people around her, and repeats words she hears without understanding.

Jamal frequently talks to himself with nonsensical phrases and moves his limbs in an erratic, unpredictable manner.

Lily neglects her hygiene, wears mismatched clothes, and often mutters incoherent sentences when alone.

Carlos paces nervously, wringing his hands and talking rapidly about unrelated topics.

PTSD

schizophrenia

pure obsessions

borderline personality disorder

Most individuals diagnosed with DID are men.

DID occurs equally among men and women.

The majority of people diagnosed with DID are women

DID is more common in children than adults.

They tend to report obscure and rare symptoms of DID but rarely mention common comorbid conditions.

They typically report widely known DID symptoms but often omit frequent associated issues like major depression or PTSD.

They describe both subtle and overt symptoms of DID with accuracy matching clinical cases.

They primarily present with symptoms unrelated to trauma or dissociation.

BPD is primarily a biologically based personality disorder distinct from trauma-related conditions.

Some clinicians suggest that BPD represents a manifestation of complex post-traumatic stress disorder due to overlapping symptoms and etiology.

BPD symptoms are entirely separate from trauma responses and reflect maladaptive personality traits only.

The classification of BPD has shifted toward a neurodevelopmental disorder linked to early childhood brain abnormalities.

Borderline Personality Disorder

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Avoidant Personality Disorder

Histrionic Personality Disorder

Paranoid Personality Disorder

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder

Borderline Personality Disorder

Histrionic Personality Disorder

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder

Schizotypal Personality Disorder

Schizoid Personality Disorder

Borderline Personality Disorder

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Histrionic personality disorder

Schizotypal personality disorder

Narcissistic personality disorder 

Dependent personality disorder

Bipolar I

Schizophrenia

Agoraphobia

Schizoid personality dsorder

DID

Bipolar II

Schizophrenia

DID

Schizotypal personality dsorder

Dissociative fugue

Borderline personality disorder

Bipolar I disorder

Bipolar II disorder

Schizophrenia

Dissociative fugue

Schizotypal personality disorder

Schizoid personality disorder

Cyclothymia

Schizophrenia

Dissociative Identity Disorder

Schizotypal personality disorder

Schizoid personality disorder

Histrionic personality disorder

Narcissistic personality disorder

Dependent personality disorder

Schizotypal personality disorder

Schizoid personality disorder

Histrionic personality disorder

Narcissistic personality disorder

Dependent personality disorder

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

Generalized anxiety disorder

Agoraphobia

Psychosis

Schizoid personality disorder

Lena often cycles between idolizing and abruptly cutting off friends. She reports feeling empty and unsure of who she really is, and she has a history of impulsive behavior and intense emotional swings.

Jared maintains distant relationships and rarely expresses emotion. He lives alone, keeps to himself, and shows little interest in social interaction.

Tessa presents as confident and charming but is frequently manipulative and lies without remorse. She has a record of minor thefts and school suspensions.

Noah reports frequent panic attacks in large crowds and avoids public spaces altogether. He insists on staying near his home and close family at all times.

BPD symptoms often center around a heightened need for reassurance and discomfort in social settings, with minimal impact on identity or mood.

BPD has traditionally been categorized as a personality disorder, though some researchers now consider it closely related to complex PTSD.

BPD is best understood as a milder subtype of antisocial personality disorder, especially due to its impulsive traits.

BPD is primarily treated through medications targeting serotonin and dopamine imbalances, which typically resolve most symptoms.

The majority of individuals diagnosed with a personality disorder often meet criteria for more than one due to overlapping

Personality disorders are best viewed as distinct from normative personality traits.

Many personality disorders reflect extremes along a continuum of common personality traits.

Some researchers argue that personality disorders can be understood in terms of the Big Five trait dimensions.

Intense emotions, difficulty forming healthy relationships, impulsivity, manipulative behavior, lack of empathy

Fear of abandonment, perfectionism, social anxiety, low self-esteem

Excessive worry, panic attacks, phobias, compulsions

Paranoia, hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech