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Medieval Europe: Key Concepts and Figures

Total questions: 165

Worksheet time: 1hrs 25mins

Name
Class
Date
1.
Which Frankish king was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope, uniting their powers?
a)
Charlemagne
b)
King John
c)
King Henry
d)
St. Cyril
2.
The area in yellow is called Scandinavia. Who came from there?
a)
Vikings
b)
Chinese
c)
Franks
d)
Eskimos
3.
These 2 Germanic groups settled in England...
a)
Angles and Saxons
b)
Franks and Visogoths
c)
Angles and Franks
d)
Magyars and Vikings
4.
Which group on the map (in green) settled in Eastern Europe/Hungary?
a)
Vikings
b)
Angles
c)
Saxons
d)
Magyars
5.
After what event did the "Dark Ages" start?
a)
Fall of Western Rome
b)
The Great Schism
c)
Battle of Tours
d)
Christianity starts
6.
When Rome fell in AD 476, life in Europe changed.  How did life in the early Middle Ages differ from Roman times?
a)
trade increases
b)
people moved from rural areas to citiies
c)
education and literacy declined
d)
the population increases
7.
What is the system of promises that governed the relationship between lords and vassals called?
a)
Buddhism
b)
Bushido
c)
Feudalism
d)
Benedictine Rule
8.
What is going on in this picture?
a)
Serfs do work for lords who protect them
b)
Lords work for serfs
c)
Serfs owned their own land
d)
knights worked the land when they weren't fighting 
9.
Who served both the social and religious needs of Medieval people? 
a)
Kings
b)
Knights
c)
Lords
d)
Catholic Priests
10.
 A medieval manor was 
a)
a self sufficient unit
b)
owned by the catholic church
c)
always located near a trade route
d)
protected by an army of serfs
11.
In a feudal system, lands called 'fiefs' are given to...
a)
Nobles, or Vassals
b)
Peasants
c)
Soldiers
d)
Priests
12.
Which was the most powerful institution in Medieval Europe?
a)
Eastern Orthodox Church
b)
Kings
c)
Roman Catholic Church
d)
Barbarians
13.
The _____________, a Germanic group led by Charlemagne became a force in Western Europe
a)
Franks
b)
Angels
c)
Saxons
d)
Vikings
14.
Who was the head of the Roman Catholic Church?
a)
Pope
b)
Priest
c)
Vassal
d)
Feif
15.

Church laws code based on religious teachings that governed all aspects of life during the Middle Ages.

a)

Common Law

b)

Canon Law

c)

Code of Hammurabi

d)

Feudalism

16.

Treaty that divided Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire into thirds.

a)

Treaty of Ghent

b)

Treaty of Verdun

c)

Treaty of Versailles

d)

Treaty of Paris

17.

Individual who halted the spread of Islam at the Battle of Tours.

a)

Clovis

b)

Charles Martel

c)

Charlemagne

d)

William the Conqueror

18.

The Latin term for "Middle Ages"

a)

medieval

b)

monasteries

c)

monks

d)

Charlemagne

19.

communities of monks

a)

Middle Ages

b)

monasteries

c)

monks

d)

medieval

20.

Religious men who lived apart from society in isolated communities

a)

medieval

b)

Charlemagne

c)

monks

d)

Pope

21.
Which number marks the Battle of Tours? 
a)
1
b)
2
c)
3
d)
4
22.
What did monasteries preserve?
a)
Greco-Roman culture
b)
Islamic culture
c)
Indian culture
d)
Chinese culture
23.

During the Middle Ages, the manorial system --

a)

Had no mutual obligations

b)

Provided little class structure

c)

Was self-sufficient

d)

Was serf controlled

24.

What event marked the end of the Pax Romana and the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire?

a)

The fall of Constantinople

b)

The end of Pax Romana in 180 AD

c)

The sacking of Rome in 410 AD

d)

The renaming of the Byzantine Empire.

25.

The Roman Empire split into two, and the capital was moved to ________.

a)

Rome

b)

Athens

c)

Constantinople

d)

Alexandria

26.

What was the eastern portion of the Roman Empire renamed after the fall of the western portion?

a)

The Ottoman Empire

b)

The Byzantine Empire

c)

The Holy Roman Empire

d)

The Persian Empire

27.

What is another name for the Middle Ages?

a)

The Renaissance

b)

The Dark Ages

c)

The Enlightenment

d)

The Industrial Age

28.

Which of the following was a factor affecting living conditions in Western Europe?

a)

Abundance of resources

b)

Lack of learning

c)

Peaceful travel

d)

Unified language

29.

Fill in the blank: One of the challenges in Western Europe was the _______ in trade.

a)

Growth

b)

Disruption

c)

Stability

d)

Expansion

30.

What was the only common link among people in Western Europe after the Fall of Rome?

a)

Language

b)

Christianity

c)

Trade

d)

Government

31.

What are the basic needs of people after the fall of Rome?

a)

Food, Clothing, Shelter

b)

Food, Protection, Shelter

c)

Food, Clothing, Protection

d)

Food, Shelter, Water

32.

After the fall of Rome, people needed Shelter, Protection, and Food, which led to the development of ________.

a)

Democracy

b)

Feudalism

c)

Capitalism

d)

Socialism

33.

What is a key characteristic of the feudal system?

a)

Centralized power

b)

Decentralization (power given to other officials rather than 1) and land ownership

c)

Equal distribution of power

d)

No land ownership

34.

In the feudal system, the mutual obligation was between the King, his subjects, and ______.

a)

Knights

b)

Lords

c)

Peasants

d)

Merchants

35.

Which of the following is a characteristic of the feudal political system?

a)

A) Centralized government

b)

B) Dependent on the relationship between nobility

c)

C) Independent local governance

d)

D) No hierarchy.

36.

In the manorial economic system, peasants worked the land and paid rent in exchange for what?

a)

Wealth

b)

Protection

c)

Freedom

d)

Food

37.

What was the largest percentage of the population during the time of serfdom?

a)

Nobles

b)

Serfs

c)

Merchants

d)

Knights

38.

Fill in the blank: Serfs were considered the lord's property and could not leave the manor without permission, meaning they were '____ to the land'.

a)

Bound

b)

Tied

c)

Free

d)

Released

39.

What was one of the main responsibilities of serfs in the manorial system?

a)

Governing the manor

b)

Working the land and laboring on building projects

c)

Collecting taxes

d)

Teaching the children.

40.

In the manorial system, the lord of the manor provided ______.

a)

Education

b)

Protection

c)

Entertainment

d)

Trade routes

41.

What is crop rotation?

a)

A) A method to plant the same crop repeatedly

b)

B) A process to use three major fields at different intervals to preserve the soil

c)

C) A way to plant crops in a single field

d)

D) A technique to grow crops without water.

42.

In crop rotation, one field is planted in the spring, one in the fall, and the other is left ______.

a)

harvested

b)

irrigated

c)

fallow

d)

fertilized

43.

What role did the Church serve on the Manor?

a)

A marketplace

b)

A town hall

c)

A school

d)

A library

44.

The Church would collect a tithe, which is a _______ of income from all Christians.

a)

fixed amount

b)

percentage

c)

donation

d)

loan

45.

This was a time in the Middle Ages where the advances of the Romans were lost, and violence was rampant.

a)

Pax Romana

b)

The Troubles

c)

The Dark Ages

d)

The Great Panic

46.

He was the king of the Franks

a)

Leif Erickson

b)

Charlemagne

c)

Erick the Red

d)

Olaf

47.

Charlemagne's conquests would lead to the formation of the ___________ Empire

a)

Byzantine

b)

Carolingian

c)

Russian

d)

Autro-Hungarian

48.

A renewed interest in education under Charlemagne became known as the

a)

Carolingian Renaissance

b)

German Renaissance

c)

Italian Renaissance

d)

Frankish Renaissance

49.

When the Carolingian Empire fell, the Western part would become ______ and the Middle and Eastern part would become _________.

a)

France, Germany

b)

Germany, France

c)

The Holy Roman Empire, France

d)

France, The Holy Roman Empire

50.

Raids from groups like the Vikings led people to turn to land owning nobles, which began this economic and political system

a)

Feudalism

b)

Authoritarianism

c)

Communism

d)

Transcendentalism

51.

Who was at the top of the feudal hierarchy?

a)

Kings/Queens

b)

Nobles

c)

Vassals

d)

Peasants/Serfs

52.

Who was at the bottom of the Feudal Hierarchy?

a)

Kings/Queens

b)

Nobles

c)

Vassals

d)

Peasants/Serfs

53.

A peasant legally bound to the lord’s land is known as a

a)

Serf

b)

Slave

c)

Gladiator

d)

Helot

54.

Peasants and serfs were...

a)

Rulers

b)

Warriors

c)

Merchants

d)

Farmers

55.

A farming estate that a lord ran, and peasants/serfs worked.

a)

Subsidy

b)

Stipend

c)

Manor

d)

Penance

56.

Vassals were...

a)

Rulers

b)

Warriors

c)

Merchants

d)

Farmers

57.

Knights were expected to live by a code called

a)

The Code of Knights

b)

The Lord's Law

c)

Chivalry

d)

The Vassel Code

58.

 An economic system where private individuals own the means of production of a good or service.

a)

Feudalism

b)

Communism

c)

Socialism

d)

Capitalism

59.

Guilds were organizations of

a)

Warriors

b)

Rulers

c)

Craftspeople

d)

Farmers

60.

True or False: Medieval cities were known for their cleanliness.

a)

True

b)

False

61.

The Vikings were raiders from...

a)

Germany

b)

Scandinavia

c)

Russia

d)

Spain

62.

In terms of their religion, Vikings were originally

a)

Polytheistic

b)

Monotheistic

63.

A Viking ship is known as a

a)

Caravel

b)

Longboat

c)

Trireme

d)

Barquentine

64.

This feature of a longboat allowed Vikings to sail up river into the interior of Europe

a)

Lateen Sails

b)

Monohull

c)

Shallow Draft

d)

Daggerboard

65.

These were a favorite target of the Vikings, as they had a lot of wealth and were not well defended.

a)

Monasteries

b)

Manors

c)

Castles

d)

Fiefs

66.

He Discovered and colonized Greenland.

a)

Erik the Red

b)

Leif Erickson

c)

Oleg

d)

Charlemagne

67.

He discovered and briefly colonized New Foundland in modern day Canada.

a)

Erik the Red

b)

Leif Erikson

c)

Oleg

d)

Charlemagne

68.

He founded the city of Kiev in modern day Ukraine, which will eventually become Russia

a)

Erik the Red

b)

Leif Erikson

c)

Oleg

d)

Charlemagne

69.
Which Frankish king was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope, uniting their powers?
a)
Charlemagne
b)
King John
c)
King Henry
d)
St. Cyril
70.
The area in yellow is called Scandinavia. Who came from there?
a)
Vikings
b)
Chinese
c)
Franks
d)
Eskimos
71.
These 2 Germanic groups settled in England...
a)
Angles and Saxons
b)
Franks and Visogoths
c)
Angles and Franks
d)
Magyars and Vikings
72.
Which group on the map (in green) settled in Eastern Europe/Hungary?
a)
Vikings
b)
Angles
c)
Saxons
d)
Magyars
73.
After what event did the "Dark Ages" start?
a)
Fall of Western Rome
b)
The Great Schism
c)
Battle of Tours
d)
Christianity starts
74.
When Rome fell in AD 476, life in Europe changed.  How did life in the early Middle Ages differ from Roman times?
a)
trade increases
b)
people moved from rural areas to citiies
c)
education and literacy declined
d)
the population increases
75.
What is the system of promises that governed the relationship between lords and vassals called?
a)
Buddhism
b)
Bushido
c)
Feudalism
d)
Benedictine Rule
76.
What is going on in this picture?
a)
Serfs do work for lords who protect them
b)
Lords work for serfs
c)
Serfs owned their own land
d)
knights worked the land when they weren't fighting 
77.
Who served both the social and religious needs of Medieval people? 
a)
Kings
b)
Knights
c)
Lords
d)
Catholic Priests
78.
 A medieval manor was 
a)
a self sufficient unit
b)
owned by the catholic church
c)
always located near a trade route
d)
protected by an army of serfs
79.
In a feudal system, lands called 'fiefs' are given to...
a)
Nobles, or Vassals
b)
Peasants
c)
Soldiers
d)
Priests
80.
Which was the most powerful institution in Medieval Europe?
a)
Eastern Orthodox Church
b)
Kings
c)
Roman Catholic Church
d)
Barbarians
81.
The _____________, a Germanic group led by Charlemagne became a force in Western Europe
a)
Franks
b)
Angels
c)
Saxons
d)
Vikings
82.
Who was the head of the Roman Catholic Church?
a)
Pope
b)
Priest
c)
Vassal
d)
Feif
83.

Church laws code based on religious teachings that governed all aspects of life during the Middle Ages.

a)

Common Law

b)

Canon Law

c)

Code of Hammurabi

d)

Feudalism

84.

Treaty that divided Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire into thirds.

a)

Treaty of Ghent

b)

Treaty of Verdun

c)

Treaty of Versailles

d)

Treaty of Paris

85.

Individual who halted the spread of Islam at the Battle of Tours.

a)

Clovis

b)

Charles Martel

c)

Charlemagne

d)

William the Conqueror

86.

The Latin term for "Middle Ages"

a)

medieval

b)

monasteries

c)

monks

d)

Charlemagne

87.

communities of monks

a)

Middle Ages

b)

monasteries

c)

monks

d)

medieval

88.

Religious men who lived apart from society in isolated communities

a)

medieval

b)

Charlemagne

c)

monks

d)

Pope

89.
Which number marks the Battle of Tours? 
a)
1
b)
2
c)
3
d)
4
90.
What did monasteries preserve?
a)
Greco-Roman culture
b)
Islamic culture
c)
Indian culture
d)
Chinese culture
91.

During the Middle Ages, the manorial system --

a)

Had no mutual obligations

b)

Provided little class structure

c)

Was self-sufficient

d)

Was serf controlled

92.

Frankish government officials who gained power over weak kings

a)

vassals

b)

Holy Roman Emperor

c)

mayors of the palace

d)

secular clergy

93.

a decentralized form of government characterized by political relationships between monarchs and nobles in which military service was provided in exchange for land

a)

feudalism

b)

manorialism

c)

homage

d)

chivalry

94.

a tract of land with peasant laborers given by a lord to a vassal

a)

fallow

b)

fief

c)

serf

d)

tournament

95.

ordained church officials

a)

clergy

b)

chivalry

c)

laity

d)

heresy

96.

a solemn ceremony in which a vassal pledged to perform certain duties to a lord

a)

chivalry

b)

homage

c)

penance

d)

sacraments

97.

church members who are not clergy

a)

cardinals

b)

laity

c)

mayors of the palace

d)

friars

98.

a mock battle between knights that served as both entertainment and practice in warfare skills

a)

chivalry

b)

Eucharist

c)

lay investiture

d)

tournament

99.

code of honor for an ideal knight, including characteristics such as bravery and courtesy

a)

chivalry

b)

homage

c)

penance

d)

tournament

100.

an economic and social system in which nobles owned large estates and peasants supplied the labor

a)

feudalism

b)

fief

c)

manorialism

d)

fallow

101.

a peasant who was bound to the land but could not be sold

a)

fief

b)

laity

c)

friar

d)

serf

102.

land that is left unplanted so that the soil can regain nutrients

a)

fallow

b)

fief

c)

sacraments

d)

serf

103.

formal church rituals that were performed by Christians in order to receive grace or salvation

a)

chivalry

b)

heresy

c)

penance

d)

sacraments

104.

suffering performed to show sorrow for sin

a)

eucharist

b)

homage

c)

penance

d)

sacraments

105.

members of the clergy who live in the world

a)

laity

b)

heresy

c)

regular clergy

d)

secular clergy

106.

the holy communion, during which a priest blesses wheat wafers and wine that represent the body and blood of Christ

a)

Eucharist

b)

homage

c)

penance

d)

sacraments

107.

members of the clergy who lived by a “rule” and apart from society, such as monks and nuns

a)

laity

b)

heresy

c)

regular clergy

d)

secular clergy

108.

the head of a monastery

a)

abbess

b)

abbot

c)

cardinal

d)

friar

109.

the head of a convent

a)

abbess

b)

abbot

c)

cardinal

d)

friar

110.

books created by monks that were decorated with elaborate designs, beautiful lettering, and miniature paintings

a)

illuminated manuscripts

b)

homage

c)

penance

d)

sacraments

111.

high Church officials ranking just below the pope who are responsible for choosing the pope

a)

abbot

b)

cardinals

c)

friars

d)

regular clergy

112.

the practice of secular rulers such as kings or nobles giving the symbols of office, such as a ring and a staff, to bishops they have appointed

a)

excommunication

b)

feudalism

c)

homage

d)

lay investiture

113.

denial of church teachings

a)

chivalry

b)

excommunication

c)

heresy

d)

homage

114.

expulsion from the church; formal denial of the right of a person to receive salvation

a)

chivalry

b)

excommunication

c)

heresy

d)

homage

115.

a wandering preacher who lived a simple life according to a rule, but was not isolated

a)

abbess

b)

cardinal

c)

friar

d)

serf

116.

a legal system based on tradition and court cases that applies throughout an entire kingdom

a)

bicameral

b)

clergy

c)

common law

d)

feudalism

117.

a group of men who submitted names of people suspected of crimes and determined if there was enough evidence to justify a trial

a)

cardinals

b)

grand jury

c)

petit jury

d)

common law

118.

a group of men who determined the guilt or innocence of the accused in an English court

a)

cardinals

b)

grand jury

c)

petit jury

d)

common law

119.

a two-house legislature

a)

bicameral

b)

common law

c)

feudalism

d)

manorialism

120.
Which Frankish king was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope, uniting their powers?
a)
Charlemagne
b)
King John
c)
King Henry
d)
St. Cyril
121.
Charlemagne was the king of which powerful Germanic tribe?
a)
Saxons
b)
Goths
c)
Franks
d)
Jutes
122.
Charlemagne did all of the following except...
a)
create a strong efficient governments
b)
create schools
c)
spread Christianity
d)
end slavery
123.
The area in yellow is called Scandinavia. Who came from there?
a)
Vikings
b)
Chinese
c)
Franks
d)
Eskimos
124.
After what event did the "Dark Ages" start?
a)
Fall of Western Rome
b)
The Great Schism
c)
Battle of Tours
d)
Christianity starts
125.
When Rome fell in AD 476, life in Europe changed.  How did life in the early Middle Ages differ from Roman times?
a)
trade increases
b)
people moved from rural areas to citiies
c)
education and literacy declined
d)
the population increases
126.
The pope's actions of crowning Charlemagne as Emperor suggested that Charlemagne's rule had the full backing of 
a)
the church and God
b)
the Roman people
c)
the Greek gods
d)
none of the above
127.
Which group came from Spain and northern Africa?
a)
Muslims
b)
Vikings
c)
Magyars
d)
Romans
128.
Which of these is not another way of saying Middle Ages?
a)
Medieval
b)
Dark Ages
c)
Renaissance
129.
What is the system of promises that governed the relationship between lords and vassals called?
a)
Buddhism
b)
Bushido
c)
Feudalism
d)
Benedictine Rule
130.
What is going on in this picture?
a)
Serfs do work for lords who protect them
b)
Lords work for serfs
c)
Serfs owned their own land
d)
knights worked the land when they weren't fighting 
131.
The area in yellow is called Scandinavia. Who came from there?
a)
Vikings
b)
Chinese
c)
Franks
d)
Eskimos
132.
Why did feudalism develop?
a)
to protect themselves
b)
build an empire
c)
increase trade
d)
encourage Christianity
133.
Who served both the social and religious needs of Medieval people? 
a)
Kings
b)
Knights
c)
Lords
d)
Catholic Priests
134.
 A medieval manor was 
a)
a self sufficient unit
b)
owned by the catholic church
c)
always located near a trade route
d)
protected by an army of serfs
135.
In a feudal system, lands called 'fiefs' are given to...
a)
Nobles, or Vassals
b)
Peasants
c)
Soldiers
d)
Priests
136.
Places where monks lived to preserve Greco-Roman cultural achievements
a)
Monostaries
b)
Churches
c)
Convents
d)
Cathedrals
137.
Charlemagne briefly united western Europe when he formed an empire reaching across parts of Italy, Germany, and
a)
Scandinavia
b)
Ireland
c)
Spain
d)
France
138.
Who was most likely to be educated during the Early Middle Ages?
a)
Priests
b)
Kings
c)
Nobles
d)
Peasants
139.
Which was the most powerful institution in Medieval Europe?
a)
Eastern Orthodox Church
b)
Kings
c)
Roman Catholic Church
d)
Barbarians
140.
A land grant that was given to a vassal from a lord was a
a)
Acre
b)
Yard
c)
Fief
d)
Frank
141.
The _____________, a Germanic group led by Charlemagne became a force in Western Europe
a)
Franks
b)
Angels
c)
Saxons
d)
Vikings
142.
Who was the head of the Roman Catholic Church?
a)
Pope
b)
Priest
c)
Vassal
d)
Feif
143.

Period in history between the collapse of Rome an the modern world.

a)

Bronze Age

b)

Classical Era

c)

Middle Ages

d)

Prehistory

144.

Which religious beliefs provided the foundation for early medieval society?

a)

Islam

b)

Buddhism

c)

Christianity

d)

Hinduism

145.

Which group held the most power under Feudalism?

a)

Serfs

b)

Knights

c)

Lords

d)

Vassals

146.

Political system of local government based on the granting of land in return for loyalty and military protection.

a)

Feudalism

b)

Anarchy

c)

Oligarchy

d)

Manorialism

147.

A peasant bound to a self-sufficient manor during Feudalism.

a)

Vassal

b)

Squire

c)

Serf

d)

Knight

148.

Church laws code based on religious teachings that governed all aspects of life during the Middle Ages.

a)

Common Law

b)

Canon Law

c)

Code of Hammurabi

d)

Feudalism

149.

What event launched Europe into the Dark Ages?

a)

The arrival of the plague in 900 A.D.

b)

The overthrow of the last Roman emperor in 476 A.D.

c)

The invasion of Rome by the Huns in 600 A.D.

d)

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1200 A.D.

150.

Who was the first Germanic King to accept Catholic Christianity?

a)

Charles Martel

b)

King Clovis

c)

Charlemagne

d)

Pope Gregory I

151.

What is significant about Charles Martel?

a)

the first Germanic King too accept Catholic Christianity

b)

the King of the Franks

c)

defended the pope against unruly Roman nobles

d)

halted the spread of Islam into Western Europe

152.

Which Frankish King nearly doubled the size of his empire?

a)

Charlemagne

b)

King Clovis

c)

King Pepin

d)

Charles Martel

153.

Where were the Muslims halted from advancing into Europe in 732?

a)

The Battle of Worms

b)

The War of 1812

c)

The Battle of Constantinople

d)

The Battle of Tours

154.

Which of the following was Charlemagne most concerned with for his people?

a)

Education

b)

Trade

c)

Agriculture

d)

Technology

155.

What power did the pope have over the king?

a)

the power to appoint bishops

b)

the power to excommunicate

c)

the power to tax

d)

the power to declare war

156.

How do missionaries spread Christianity?

a)

Missionaries stay isolated and in a monastery

b)

Missionaries travel from place to place

157.

What were Charlemagne's feelings towards Christianity?

a)

Charlemagne felt everyone should not become Christian

b)

Charlemagne made everyone he conquered become Christian

c)

Charlemagne did not care what religion anyone practiced

158.

Describe Charlemagne's relationship with the church.

a)

The Pope denied Charlemagne entry into the church

b)

Charlemagne heavily disagreed with Christianity

c)

The Pope crowned Charlemagne for spreading Christianity

159.

What does a vassal provide their lord?

a)

A vassal provides their lord crops and services

b)

A vassal provides their lord protection from invaders

c)

A vassal provides their lord with a fief (land)

160.

What is life like on the manor? What do we see on a manor?

a)

serfs and peasants who work the land

b)

churches, castles, and villages for workers

c)

nobles protect the peasants

d)

all of the above

161.

communities of monks

a)

Middle Ages

b)

monasteries

c)

monks

d)

medieval

162.

a knight who promised to support a lord in exchange for land

a)

fief

b)

peasant

c)

vassal

d)

noble

163.

system of promises that governed the relationships between lords and vassals

a)

communism

b)

feudalism

c)

capitalism

d)

monarchy

164.

workers who were tied to the land on which they lived and farmed

a)

knights

b)

vassals

c)

serfs

d)

lords

165.

Italian monk who established a set of rules for monks in the 500s

a)

Charlemagne

b)

Benedict

c)

Clovis

d)

Caesar