To create laws

To interpret laws

To enforce laws

To amend laws

U.S. Supreme Court at the top, U.S. Courts of Appeals beneath it, and U.S. District Courts at the base

U.S. Supreme Court at the top, state courts beneath it, and local courts at the base

U.S. Supreme Court at the top, specialized courts beneath it, and appellate courts at the base

U.S. Supreme Court at the top, trial courts beneath it, and municipal courts at the base

Seven

Nine

Eleven

Thirteen

Appointed by Congress and removed by impeachment

Appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate; removable only by impeachment and conviction

Appointed by the Supreme Court and removed by the President

Appointed by the Senate and removed by a vote of the House of Representatives

Four years

Ten years

Lifetime unless removed for misconduct

Twenty years

Authority to review decisions of lower courts; example: appeals cases

Authority to hear a case first; example: disputes between states or cases involving foreign diplomats

Authority to hear cases only in federal courts; example: bankruptcy cases

Authority to hear cases in either state or federal courts; example: civil suits between citizens of different states

Authority to hear a case first

Authority to review decisions of lower courts without hearing new evidence

Authority to hear cases only in federal courts

Authority to hear cases in either state or federal courts

Cases that can be tried only in federal courts; example: bankruptcy or federal criminal prosecutions

Cases that can be tried in either state or federal courts; example: civil suits between citizens of different states

Cases that can be tried only in state courts; example: family law cases

Cases that can be tried in municipal courts; example: traffic violations

Cases that can be tried only in federal courts; example: bankruptcy cases

Cases that can be tried in either state or federal courts; example: civil suits between citizens of different states

Cases that can be tried only in state courts; example: family law cases

Cases that can be tried in municipal courts; example: traffic violations

Federal crimes, federal civil cases, and other matters within original federal jurisdiction

State crimes, state civil cases, and other matters within state jurisdiction

Appeals from state courts and federal agencies

International trade disputes and foreign relations cases

Hear appeals from state courts and federal agencies; panels of judges review legal and procedural issues

Hear appeals from district courts and certain federal agencies; panels of judges review legal and procedural issues (no new evidence)

Hear appeals from municipal courts and state agencies; panels of judges review evidence

Hear appeals from international courts; panels of judges review foreign law

A Supreme Court order directing a lower court to send up the record for review

A Supreme Court order directing a lower court to dismiss a case

A Supreme Court order directing a lower court to retry a case

A Supreme Court order directing a lower court to transfer a case to another jurisdiction

The 'Rule of Three'

The 'Rule of Four'

The 'Rule of Five'

The 'Rule of Six'

Written arguments submitted by the parties; amicus curiae briefs are submitted by third parties to provide additional perspectives.

Oral arguments presented by the parties; amicus curiae briefs are submitted by the Supreme Court.

Written arguments submitted by the Supreme Court; amicus curiae briefs are submitted by the parties.

Oral arguments presented by the parties; amicus curiae briefs are submitted by the President.

Majority opinion, concurring opinion, and dissenting opinion.

Majority opinion, minority opinion, and concurring opinion.

Concurring opinion, dissenting opinion, and advisory opinion.

Majority opinion, advisory opinion, and dissenting opinion.

Marbury v. Madison (1803).

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819).

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857).

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

It enables the judiciary to invalidate laws or actions that exceed constitutional authority.

It allows the judiciary to create new laws to balance power.

It prevents the executive branch from appointing judges.

It limits the legislative branch from passing constitutional amendments.

Suspects must be informed of rights to remain silent and to an attorney before custodial interrogation.

Suspects must be informed of their right to vote before interrogation.

Suspects must be informed of their right to appeal before interrogation.

Suspects must be informed of their right to testify before interrogation.

"Separate but equal" segregation doctrine; Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

"Equal protection" doctrine; Gideon v. Wainwright (1963).

"Separate but equal" segregation doctrine; Miranda v. Arizona (1966).

"Equal protection" doctrine; McCulloch v. Maryland (1819).

The right to counsel for indigent defendants in criminal trials.

The right to vote for all citizens.

The right to appeal any court decision.

The right to testify in criminal trials.

Judicial activism involves proactive use of judicial review to address societal issues; judicial restraint defers to elected branches and follows precedent.

Judicial activism involves deferring to elected branches; judicial restraint involves proactive use of judicial review.

Judicial activism involves creating new laws; judicial restraint involves overturning existing laws.

Judicial activism involves following precedent; judicial restraint involves ignoring precedent.

Literal interpretation (textualism), original intent/originalism, fundamental principles, modernism (living constitution), and judicial pragmatism

Literal interpretation, judicial activism, modernism, and strict constructionism

Pragmatism, judicial activism, textualism, and fundamentalism

Originalism, judicial activism, and living constitution only

Pragmatism focuses on the framers' intent, while originalism emphasizes practical outcomes

Pragmatism emphasizes practical outcomes and societal effects, while originalism focuses on the framers' intent and historical meaning

Originalism focuses on societal effects, while pragmatism emphasizes historical meaning

Both pragmatism and originalism focus on the framers' intent and societal effects equally

To represent the U.S. government before the Supreme Court and submit briefs in cases involving federal interests

To act as a judge in Supreme Court cases involving federal interests

To represent individual states in cases involving constitutional amendments

To oversee the appointment of Supreme Court justices

Constitutional amendment, subsequent Supreme Court reversal, or new federal legislation consistent with constitutional limits

Presidential veto, congressional override, or public referendum

State-level legislation, judicial activism, or constitutional amendment

Supreme Court impeachment, judicial activism, or public opinion

By limiting the Court’s authority and focusing on state rights

By establishing the Court’s authority and national role through decisions like Marbury v. Madison

By promoting judicial activism and reducing federal power

By focusing on legislative supremacy over judicial review

Majority opinions form binding precedent; concurrences explain alternate reasoning; dissents critique the majority and influence later shifts or legislative responses

Majority opinions are non-binding; concurrences and dissents are equally binding

Majority opinions are only symbolic; concurrences and dissents hold legal weight

Majority opinions are binding, but concurrences and dissents have no legal or educational value

They strengthen the Court’s legitimacy by showing unity

They lead to public debate, political backlash, and potential efforts to change law or the Court’s composition

They have no impact on the Court’s legitimacy

They ensure ideological balance in the Court’s decisions

The Declaration of Independence

The Articles of Confederation

The U.S. Constitution’s Bill of Rights

The Federalist Papers

The Free Speech Clause and the Establishment Clause

The Establishment Clause and the Free Exercise Clause

The Equal Protection Clause and the Free Exercise Clause

The Due Process Clause and the Free Speech Clause

Political speech and satire

Libel, slander, obscenity, seditious speech, hate speech, and speech presenting a clear and present danger

Commercial speech and artistic expression

Symbolic speech and peaceful protests

Speech that criticizes the government

Speech that is likely to produce imminent lawless action or immediate illegal actions

Speech that is offensive to others

Speech that is unpopular but peaceful

Government censorship before publication; prohibited when it causes irreparable harm

Government censorship after publication; prohibited when it is offensive

Government censorship of private conversations; prohibited when it violates privacy

Government censorship of public speeches; prohibited when it is unpopular

Protection against self-incrimination

Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures

Protection against double jeopardy

Protection against cruel and unusual punishment

Probable cause is a reasonable belief supported by facts or evidence; suspicion is insufficient

Probable cause is a vague assumption; suspicion is based on evidence

Probable cause is a legal term; suspicion is a psychological term

Probable cause is based on intuition; suspicion is based on facts

A rule allowing evidence obtained without a warrant

A rule prohibiting illegally obtained evidence from being used in court

A rule allowing hearsay evidence in court

A rule prohibiting evidence obtained through legal means

Rights to free speech; supported by the First Amendment

Rights to remain silent and have counsel; supported by the Fifth and Sixth Amendments

Rights to privacy; supported by the Fourth Amendment

Rights to vote; supported by the Fifteenth Amendment

Right to free speech and peaceful assembly

Right to grand jury indictment, protection against double jeopardy, self-incrimination, due process, and uncompensated takings

Right to privacy and protection against cruel punishment

Right to vote and equal protection under the law

Right to free speech and peaceful assembly

Right to be informed of charges, speedy and public trial, impartial jury, confront witnesses, and assistance of counsel

Right to privacy and protection against cruel punishment

Right to vote and equal protection under the law

The right to vote in elections

The right to challenge unlawful detention or imprisonment

The right to free speech

The right to privacy

Excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment.

Freedom of speech and press.

Right to bear arms.

Protection against self-incrimination.

By banning all forms of punishment.

By using evolving standards of decency to limit certain punishments, such as for juvenile offenders and intellectually disabled persons.

By allowing all punishments as long as they are approved by Congress.

By applying the same standards of punishment since the Constitution was written.

The process by which the Supreme Court applies most Bill of Rights protections to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause.

The process of creating new amendments to the Constitution.

The process of incorporating federal laws into state laws.

The process of incorporating international laws into U.S. law.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

Gitlow v. New York (1925).

Roe v. Wade (1973).

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

It requires states to provide equal protection under the law and is found in Section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment.

It guarantees freedom of speech and is found in the First Amendment.

It protects against self-incrimination and is found in the Fifth Amendment.

It ensures the right to bear arms and is found in the Second Amendment.

Rational basis test and strict scrutiny.

Intermediate scrutiny and rational basis test.

Strict scrutiny and intermediate scrutiny.

Rational basis test and intermediate scrutiny.

Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965, Americans with Disabilities Act (1990).

Civil Rights Act of 1964, Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title IX (1972).

Voting Rights Act of 1965, Title IX (1972), Equal Pay Act of 1963.

Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title IX (1972).

Title IX prohibits gender discrimination in federally funded educational programs.

Title IX prohibits racial discrimination in public schools.

Title IX prohibits age discrimination in employment.

Title IX prohibits religious discrimination in public institutions.

Selective incorporation applies Bill of Rights protections to states; the Third, Seventh, and Tenth Amendments and the Fifth Amendment's grand jury requirement are not fully incorporated.

Selective incorporation applies state laws to federal courts; the First and Second Amendments are not fully incorporated.

Selective incorporation applies international laws to U.S. states; the Fourth and Fifth Amendments are not fully incorporated.

Selective incorporation applies federal laws to state courts; the Eighth and Ninth Amendments are not fully incorporated.

It overturned 'separate but equal' in public education and held racial segregation in schools unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause.

It upheld 'separate but equal' in public education.

It established the right to privacy in education.

It allowed states to decide on racial segregation in schools.

Griswold v. Connecticut and Obergefell v. Hodges.

Roe v. Wade and Plessy v. Ferguson.

Brown v. Board of Education and Gitlow v. New York.

Miranda v. Arizona and Marbury v. Madison.

Right to jury trial in federal civil cases.

Right to jury trial in criminal cases.

Right to a speedy trial in all courts.

Right to legal counsel in federal courts.

Rights can never be limited under any circumstances.

Rights may be balanced against compelling public interests like public safety and order.

Rights are only limited during wartime.

Rights are limited only by the President of the United States.

The First Amendment

The Fifth Amendment

The Tenth Amendment

The Fourteenth Amendment

The Declaration of Independence; Legislative Branch (Article I), Executive Branch (Article II), Judicial Branch (Article III)

The Constitution of Virginia; Legislative Branch (Article IV), Executive Branch (Article V), Judicial Branch (Article VI)

The Articles of Confederation; Legislative Branch (Article III), Executive Branch (Article IV), Judicial Branch (Article V)

The U.S. Constitution; Legislative Branch (Article II), Executive Branch (Article III), Judicial Branch (Article IV)

Governor, Lieutenant Governor, and Secretary of State

Governor, Lieutenant Governor, and Attorney General

Governor, Attorney General, and Chief Justice

Governor, Secretary of State, and Treasurer

Preside over the Virginia Senate and cast tie-breaking votes.

Prepare the biennial state budget, propose legislation, oversee execution of state laws, and command the state National Guard.

Defend the state in legal matters and issue advisory opinions.

Introduce bills in the General Assembly and vote on them.

Four-year term; a governor may serve consecutive terms.

Four-year term; a governor may not serve consecutive terms.

Six-year term; a governor may serve consecutive terms.

Six-year term; a governor may not serve consecutive terms.

Presides over the Virginia Senate, casts tie-breaking votes, and succeeds the governor if necessary.

Prepares the state budget and oversees the execution of state laws.

Defends the state in legal matters and issues advisory opinions.

Introduces bills in the General Assembly and votes on them.

Presides over the Virginia Senate and casts tie-breaking votes.

Defends the state in legal matters, issues advisory opinions, and serves as the chief legal officer.

Oversees the execution of state laws and commands the state National Guard.

Prepares the biennial state budget and proposes legislation.

Bicameral legislature with an upper house (Senate) and a lower house (House of Delegates).

Unicameral legislature with one house (Senate).

Bicameral legislature with two equal houses (Senate and House of Representatives).

Unicameral legislature with one house (House of Delegates).

Originate in the Senate.

Originate in the House of Delegates.

Be approved by the Governor before introduction.

Be introduced by the Attorney General.

Sign into law, veto, or recommend amendments.

Sign into law, veto, or send to the Supreme Court for review.

Sign into law, veto, or send to the Attorney General for review.

Sign into law, veto, or send to the Lieutenant Governor for approval.

Counties, incorporated towns, and independent cities

States, counties, and federal districts

Municipalities, states, and federal districts

Counties, states, and federal districts

Enforce state and local laws, promote public health, protect public safety, educate children, regulate land use, levy and collect local taxes

Create federal laws, regulate international trade, and manage national defense

Enforce state laws only, regulate land use, and manage national parks

Promote public health, manage international relations, and levy federal taxes

Counties are political subdivisions of the state, while independent cities are separate government entities independent of county authority and taxing power

Counties are governed by federal law, while independent cities are governed by state law

Counties are part of municipalities, while independent cities are part of states

Counties are independent entities, while independent cities are subdivisions of the state

Sheriff, Commissioner of Revenue, Treasurer, and a clerk of the circuit court

Governor, Mayor, and Attorney General

President, Vice President, and Secretary of State

Police Chief, Fire Chief, and City Manager

Address cross-locality needs like planning, transportation, water and waste services, and regional facilities

Manage federal programs and oversee national defense

Regulate international trade and manage state parks

Enforce state laws and oversee local ordinances

Voting, campaigning, contacting officials, attending public meetings, serving on boards and commissions, lobbying, petitioning, writing letters, and joining interest groups

Protesting, boycotting, and creating federal laws

Managing local businesses and enforcing state laws

Attending international conferences and regulating trade

Oversee public school operations, set local education policy and budgets, employ staff, and manage curriculum matters within state law

Manage federal education programs and regulate international schools

Enforce state laws and oversee local ordinances

Create national education policies and manage state parks

Property taxes are a main revenue source for local governments and are used to fund schools, public safety, infrastructure, and local services

Property taxes are used to fund international trade and national defense

Property taxes are collected to manage state parks and federal programs

Property taxes are used to regulate land use and enforce state laws

Local ordinances must conform to state and federal law; local governments implement and enforce state laws at the local level

Local ordinances override state law in all cases

State law is independent of local ordinances

Local ordinances are created without regard to state law

By special elections or appointments as prescribed by state law or local charters.

By public voting during general elections.

By random selection from eligible citizens.

By appointment from the federal government.

It shapes the public agenda, influences policymakers directly, helps ensure accountability, and allows citizens to address local needs effectively.

It reduces the need for government officials.

It eliminates the need for elections.

It centralizes decision-making power.

The study of how people and societies use limited resources to satisfy unlimited needs and wants — essentially scarcity and choice.

The study of political systems and governance.

The study of natural resources and their conservation.

The study of historical trade routes.

What goods and services should be produced? How should they be produced? For whom are they produced?

How much money should be printed? Who should control the economy? What should be taxed?

What is the role of government? How should resources be distributed? What is the role of technology?

How should education be funded? What industries should be prioritized? Who should own property?

An economy combining market forces with government intervention — the United States is a mixed economy.

An economy entirely controlled by the government.

An economy based solely on traditional customs.

An economy where only private individuals control production.

Traditional (customs guide production), Command (government controls means of production and planning), Market (private individuals/firms determine production via supply and demand).

Traditional (based on technology), Command (based on democracy), Market (based on barter).

Traditional (based on agriculture), Command (based on monarchy), Market (based on trade).

Traditional (based on religion), Command (based on socialism), Market (based on capitalism).

Earn income, purchase property, choose occupations, open businesses/decide what to produce.

Earn income, vote in elections, choose leaders, open businesses.

Purchase property, follow government rules, choose leaders, decide what to produce.

Earn income, follow traditions, choose leaders, open businesses.

Higher economic freedom tends to correspond with higher political freedom (e.g., democracies); authoritarian systems limit both.

Economic freedom and political freedom are unrelated.

Economic freedom always leads to political instability.

Political freedom is more important than economic freedom.

Land, Labor, Capital, and Entrepreneurship.

Land, Money, Technology, and Resources.

Labor, Technology, Resources, and Capital.

Land, Resources, Money, and Entrepreneurship.

Supply — amount producers are willing and able to sell at different prices. Demand — amount consumers are willing and able to buy at different prices.

Supply — amount of goods available. Demand — amount of goods needed.

Supply — amount of money in the economy. Demand — amount of money spent.

Supply — amount consumers want to buy. Demand — amount producers want to sell.

Changes (e.g., labor cost increases) shift supply or demand curves, altering equilibrium price and quantity.

Changes in production factors have no effect on market equilibrium.

Changes in production factors only affect demand, not supply.

Changes in production factors only affect supply, not demand.

They drive efficiency, innovation, and lower prices, benefiting consumers and stimulating growth.

They reduce the need for government intervention.

They eliminate the need for regulations.

They ensure equal distribution of wealth.

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Federal Reserve, Department of Defense, NASA, Department of Education.

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), NASA, Department of Energy, Department of Justice.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Department of Transportation, Department of Agriculture, Department of Commerce.

They provide the rule-of-law backdrop markets need to function and encourage investment.

They ensure political stability by granting voting rights.

They eliminate government intervention in business ownership.

They reduce the need for economic freedom.

The power to levy taxes on income.

The ability to enforce contracts through the judicial system.

The power to take private property for public use with just compensation.

The authority to regulate imports and exports.

A verbal agreement to exchange goods without legal enforcement.

A legally binding agreement to buy/sell or perform, enforceable through the judicial system.

A written agreement that cannot be enforced by law.

A mutual understanding between parties without legal consequences.

It abolished tariffs on imported goods.

It granted Congress the power to levy an income tax, forming the foundation for federal income taxation.

It established mandatory spending for Social Security.

It restricted free trade to protect domestic industries.

Direct taxes are included in the price of goods, while indirect taxes are paid straight to the government.

Direct taxes are paid straight to the government (e.g., income, property), while indirect taxes are included in the price (e.g., sales tax, excise tax).

Direct taxes are only applicable to imports, while indirect taxes apply to exports.

Direct taxes are voluntary, while indirect taxes are mandatory.

Progressive taxes apply equally to all income levels, proportional taxes increase with income, and regressive taxes decrease with income.

Progressive taxes require higher earners to pay a larger percentage, proportional taxes apply the same percentage to all incomes, and regressive taxes place a larger burden on lower-income earners.

Progressive taxes are only applicable to imports, proportional taxes apply to exports, and regressive taxes apply to domestic goods.

Progressive taxes are voluntary, proportional taxes are mandatory, and regressive taxes are optional.

Taxes on imports and exports; sin taxes are taxes on luxury goods.

Taxes on specific goods/services (e.g., alcohol, tobacco, gasoline); sin taxes are high excise taxes intended to discourage harmful consumption.

Taxes on property and income; sin taxes are taxes on high-income earners.

Taxes on foreign goods; sin taxes are taxes on environmentally harmful products.

Tariffs are direct taxes on income, and they reduce government revenue.

Tariffs are indirect taxes on imports that raise prices on foreign goods, regulate import levels, protect domestic producers, and generate revenue.

Tariffs are taxes on exports that increase competition in foreign markets.

Tariffs are voluntary contributions to the government.

To increase imports and reduce exports.

To protect key industries or workers harmed by competition, preserve strategic interests, and ensure national defense.

To encourage foreign investment in domestic markets.

To reduce government spending on trade policies.

Fiscal policy involves regulating imports and exports to stabilize trade.

Fiscal policy involves government taxation and spending choices; Congress can increase spending/cut taxes to stimulate demand or reduce spending/raise taxes to cool inflation.

Fiscal policy is conducted by the Federal Reserve to control interest rates.

Fiscal policy is a voluntary program to encourage savings.

Monetary policy involves government spending choices; conducted by Congress.

Monetary policy involves actions affecting money supply, interest rates, and credit availability; conducted by the Federal Reserve (FOMC).

Monetary policy involves regulating imports and exports; conducted by the Department of Commerce.

Monetary policy involves taxation policies; conducted by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).

Mandatory spending is annually approved by Congress, while discretionary spending is required by law.

Mandatory spending is required by law (e.g., Social Security, Medicare), while discretionary spending is annually approved by Congress (e.g., defense, education, research).

Mandatory spending applies to imports, while discretionary spending applies to exports.

Mandatory spending is voluntary, while discretionary spending is mandatory.

Congress can increase spending/cut taxes (fiscal) while the Fed lowers interest rates or increases money supply (monetary) to boost demand and employment.

Congress can reduce spending/increase taxes (fiscal) while the Fed raises interest rates (monetary) to cool inflation.

Congress can regulate imports and exports (fiscal) while the Fed adjusts trade policies (monetary).

Congress can increase tariffs (fiscal) while the Fed reduces credit availability (monetary).

Sustained rise in the average price level; measured by the annual percentage change in the Consumer Price Index (CPI).

A decrease in the average price level; measured by the annual percentage change in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Sustained rise in the average price level; measured by the annual percentage change in the unemployment rate.

A decrease in the average price level; measured by the annual percentage change in the Consumer Price Index (CPI).

precincts

cities

localities

counties

towns

enforcing laws

enacting ordinances (local laws)

adopting a biennial budget

adopting an annual budget

cities

towns

counties

regions

president

treasurer

sheriff

clerk of the circuit court

commissioner of revenue

constitutions

preambles

ordinances

charters

School board, Sheriff, and Public Health

Transportation, Water and Waste disposal, and Jails

State Laws, State Prisons, and State Healthcare

Federal Agencies

What to produce, why to produce, when to produce?

What is your opportunity cost, what economic resources are needed, why should these resources be used?

What is produced, how is it produced, and for whom is it produced?

What is your opportunity cost, why are economic resources needed, when should these resources be used?

A. An economy where the government makes most of the economic decisions.

B. An economy where consumers and businesses jointly answer questions of what, how, and for whom to produce.

C. An economy where traditional societies use ritual/habitat/custom to answer what, how, and for whom to produce.

D. An economy where the government and businesses jointly answer questions of what, how, and for whom to produce.

Adam Smith

Milton Friedman

John Maynard Keynes

Karl Marx

John Maynard Keynes

Milton Friedman

Karl Marx

Adam Smith

Reducing government intervention to stabilize the economy and promote economic growth.

Free market principles to stabilize the economy and promote economic growth.

Government intervention to stabilize the economy and promote economic growth.

Government intervention to control the economy and restrict economic growth.

Milton Friedman

Adam Smith

Karl Marx

John Maynard Keynes

The central idea of monetarism is that interest rates are crucial for economic stability.

The central idea of monetarism is that fiscal policy is crucial for economic stability.

The central idea of monetarism is that controlling the money supply is crucial for economic stability.

The central idea of monetarism is that government spending is crucial for economic stability.

Belief in free markets and limited government intervention

Advocacy for socialism and government control

Support for monopolies and excessive regulation

Emphasis on income redistribution and wealth equality

To promote and support specific industries and businesses.

To redistribute wealth and ensure economic equality.

To control and regulate all economic activities.

To ensure the rule of law, protect property rights, and maintain a stable monetary system.

planned economy

command economy

laissez-faire

socialism

Nonpartisan election

Primary election

Partisan election

Special election

• lobbyist

Partisan.

• political parties

• nonpartisan

• referendum

• partisan

• policy

• nonpartisan