Lexico-Grammar

Language, meaning, and grammar

​We are accustomed to talking about language under different headings. School grammar books used to have chapters on pronunciation, orthography, morphology and syntax, with a vocabulary added at the end. This acknowledged the fact that a language is a complex semiotic system, having various levels, or strata.

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​​Simple Sentence (or independent clause): it has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a subject, a verb, and a completed thought. It is referred to as "independent" because, while it might be part of a compound or complex sentence, it can also stand by itself as a complete sentence.

1. Joe waited for the train.
2. The train was late.
3. Mary and Samantha took the bus.
4. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.
5. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station early but waited until noon for the bus.

subject (simple or compound) + verb (simple or compound)

​A Compound Sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses (or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words "FAN BOYS" (e.g., and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so).

1. Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.
2. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at the station before noon and left on the bus before I arrived.
3. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the bus before I arrived.
4. Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see them at the bus station.

Complex Sentence: contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The clauses in a complex sentence are combined with subordinate conjunctions, terms that help the dependent clauses relate to the independent clause. Subordinators can refer to the subject (who, which), the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.

• after although as

• because before even though

• if since though

• unless until when

• whenever whereas wherever while

1. Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see them at the station.

2. I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon.

3. While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late.​

4. Joe realized that the train was late while he waited at the train station.

   Compound-Complex Sentence: contains multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Multiple Choice

I did not know that this food was meant only for the staff.

• simple

• compound

• complex

Multiple Choice

She is innocent, so she has appealed to the court.

• simple

• compound

• complex

Multiple Choice

If you are not ready with the song, it is better to let them know.

• simple

• compound

• complex

Multiple Choice

She will come home or I will stay back at her place.

• simple

• compound

• complex

Multiple Choice

In the evening, I am going to the park.

• simple

• compound

• complex

Multiple Choice

The sun looks amazing today.

• simple

• compound

• complex

Multiple Choice

I remember the day that we met very well.

• simple

• compound

• complex

Multiple Choice

Nithi is not keeping well, yet she decided to go to work.

• simple

• compound

• complex

A run-on sentence occurs when two independent clauses run together without proper punctuation or appropriate conjunctions.

Run-on sentences

• dividing the clauses

• inserting a semicolon

• using a comma with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, for, yet, nor)

• adding a subordinating conjunction when, while, because, as, although, if, though, since

​Mary came home from work early we worked hard on our the project

​1. The tall man stumbled into the saloon. Then tripped over a chair and passed out.


2. I will watch The Office you do your homework.


3. Marsha was having a bad hair day she stood at the bathroom mirror primping for over an hour. When she finally realized she was late, she hopped into her car and rushed to work.


4. I was too tired to go to the store the guys shopped for three hours.


5. Mary came home from work early she had been feeling ill all morning.