24 ELD Middle English

Middle English Literature (1066-1200)

Tesaannisa, M.Hum.

Overview of Middle English Literature (1066-1200)

After the Norman Conquest in 1066, the English language evolved due to the influence of Norman (French) and Latin, giving birth to Middle English. This period is a transition from Old English and features works that are more structured but still difficult for modern readers to understand.

Key Characteristics of the Period:

• Mixed Language: A blend of Anglo-Saxon and Norman languages.

• Religious Context: Most works are religious because the church held significant power.

• Human Themes: In addition to religion, themes of knighthood and adventure started to appear.

• Lyrics and Allegory: Many works use lyric poetry to convey moral teachings and virtues.

Mixed Language: A blend of Anglo-Saxon and Norman languages

After the Norman Conquest, the English language absorbed many words from Norman (French) while retaining some Anglo-Saxon (Old English) vocabulary. This resulted in the Middle English we see in texts from this period.

Example:

• Anglo-Saxon: Everyday words, especially for farming or basic actions, often came from Old English.

  • "House" (Old English: hūs)

  • "Cow" (Old English: cū)

• Norman Influence: Many words relating to law, government, and culture came from French.

  • "Court" (French: cour)

  • "Justice" (French: justice)

  • "Beef" (French: boeuf) – though the animal was still referred to in Old English as "cow."

This linguistic blending is clearly seen in legal and governmental documents, where the terms of authority were often French, but the common people's vocabulary remained rooted in Anglo-Saxon.

Religious Context: Most works are religious because the church held significant power

The church had a dominant influence over society during the Middle English period, so much of the literature focused on religious themes, moral teachings, and biblical stories. Monks and other religious figures often composed these works.

Example:

• "The Ormulum" (by Orm): This is a religious text written by a monk to teach Christian doctrines. Orm composed his teachings in a poetic style to make them easier to remember and recite. His work reflects the strong religious focus of the period.

• "Ancrene Wisse": This is a guide written for anchoresses (female hermits) about how to lead a life devoted to God. It provides spiritual instructions, reflecting the religious nature of the period’s literature.

Human Themes: In addition to religion, themes of knighthood and adventure started to appear

While religion was central, literature also began to explore human experiences, particularly the lives of knights, chivalry, and adventure. The concept of knighthood and loyalty was emerging due to the influence of feudalism and the warrior class.

Example:

• "Havelok the Dane": A Middle English romance that tells the story of Havelok, a young prince who is forced into exile and later rises to reclaim his rightful throne. The tale includes themes of knighthood, loyalty, and justice, which were becoming prominent during this time.

• "Sir Orfeo": This is another example of a medieval romance, blending adventure with myth. Sir Orfeo, a king, embarks on a quest to rescue his wife from the king of the fairies. This kind of story shows the growing interest in human heroism and adventure.

Lyrics and Allegory: Many works use lyric poetry to convey moral teachings and virtues

Allegorical literature was popular, with writers using characters and stories to symbolize deeper moral, religious, or philosophical messages. These poems often contained moral lessons, delivered in lyrical or narrative forms.

Example:

• "The Owl and the Nightingale": This allegorical poem depicts a debate between an owl and a nightingale. The owl represents the austere, moral life of religion, while the nightingale symbolizes the pleasures of the world. Through their dialogue, the poem explores deeper questions about life, morality, and spirituality.

• "Piers Plowman" (by William Langland): Although written slightly later, this is a great example of allegorical literature. It tells the story of a man named Piers, whose journey to find truth and salvation becomes an allegory for the spiritual life of Christians. Themes of morality, faith, and virtues are central to the narrative.

Multiple Choice

What was the primary influence on the English language after the Norman Conquest in 1066?

• Scandinavian

• Norman (French)

• Celtic

• Roman

Multiple Choice

Which of the following words entered the English language from French during the Middle English period?

• Cow

• Beef

• Sheep

• Pig

Multiple Choice

What type of literature was "The Owl and the Nightingale"?

• Religious sermon

• Historical chronicle

• Allegorical debate poem

• Epic romance

Multiple Choice

What was the main purpose of "The Ormulum" by Orm?

• To record historical events

• To teach religious lessons in poetic form

• To entertain the royal court

• To debate philosophical ideas

Multiple Choice

Which of the following describes the purpose of allegorical literature in Middle English?

• To tell heroic stories

• To entertain royalty

• To convey moral and religious lessons

• To record historical events

Detailed Characteristics of Middle English Literature in Terms of Language

• Norman (French) Influence on the English Language
  After the Norman Conquest, French became the language of the aristocracy, while Latin was used in administration and the church. Old English, spoken by the general population, began mixing with French, leading to many new vocabulary words related to law, government, and religion. Middle English emerged from this blend.

Vocabulary Examples:

• Words like court (from cour) or justice (from justice) come from French.

• Everyday words like beef (from boeuf) and pork (from porc) entered English, while the names for the animals themselves, like cow and pig, remained from Old English.

Changes in Grammar Structure

• Example of Verb Change:
  In Old English, for the verb “sing”:

  • Ic singe (I sing)

  • Þu singst (you sing)

  • He/Heo singþ (he/she sings)

  In Middle English, the verb forms became simpler:

  • I singe (I sing)

  • Thou singest (you sing)

  • He singeth (he sings)

• A key feature of Middle English is the simplification of grammar from Old English, especially in verb and noun inflections. Old English had complex inflections, but these started to disappear in Middle English:

  • Verb inflections reduced: For example, in Old English, verbs changed depending on the person and number, such as "singan" (to sing), but in Middle English, many of these changes were lost.

  • Noun endings decreased: Old English had various case forms for nouns, but Middle English began dropping many of these forms.

Use of Various Dialects

• Middle English was written in different dialects depending on the geographical region. There were four main dialects: Northern, Southern, East Midlands, and West Midlands. Each dialect had its unique spelling and pronunciation features.

  Dialect Differences Example:

  • The word "church" in the Northern dialect was spelled "kirk," while in the Southern dialect, it was spelled "chirche".

  • The word "she" in the Northern dialect was spelled "sho," while in the Southern dialect, it remained "she".

Development of Spelling (Orthography) Systems

• During this period, spelling was not standardized, so words were often spelled differently by different writers. The same word could have multiple spellings, depending on the region and the writer's style.

  Example of Spelling Variations:

  • The word "knight" could be spelled cniht, knyght, or knyht.

  • The word "through" could be spelled thurgh or throgh.

Use of Lyrics and Allegorical Poetry

• Literature in this period often used lyric poetry and allegory to convey moral messages and religious teachings. These poems were frequently composed in couplets (two rhyming lines) and quatrains (four rhyming lines).

  Example of Allegory Use:
  In "The Owl and the Nightingale", the owl represents religious life, while the nightingale represents worldly and material life. The debate between the two is an allegory for the spiritual and worldly conflicts present in society.

Multiple Choice

Which characteristic of Middle English shows the simplification of Old English grammar?

• Increased use of inflections

• Standardized spelling

• Decreased inflections in verbs and nouns

• Use of different alphabets

Multiple Choice

What is the dialectical difference between Northern and Southern Middle English for the word “church”?

• "Chirche" in Northern and "Kirk" in Southern

• "Kirk" in Northern and "Chirche" in Southern

• "Kerk" in Northern and "Churche" in Southern

• "Kirk" in Southern and "Chirche" in Northern

Multiple Choice

Which of the following letters used in Middle English is no longer used in Modern English?

• Þ (thorn)

• W

• C

• Y

Multiple Choice

In “The Owl and the Nightingale,” what do the owl and nightingale represent?

• The owl represents wisdom, and the nightingale represents beauty.

• The owl represents darkness, and the nightingale represents light.

• The owl represents religious life, and the nightingale represents worldly life.

• The owl represents nobility, and the nightingale represents peasantry.