The Cold War: The Early Years

EARLY COLD WAR YEARS

By Richard Orton

​BENCHMARKS

SS.912.A.6.10 Examine causes, course, and consequences of

the early years of the Cold War (Truman Doctrine, Marshall

Plan, NATO, Warsaw Pact).

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SS.912.A.6.12 Examine causes, course, and consequences of the

Korean War.

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SS.912.A.6.13 Analyze significant foreign policy events during the

Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon administrations.

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Containing Communism

In late 1945, foreign ministers of the former Allies met in London and then in Moscow to discuss the future of Europe and Asia. In these meetings, the United States and Britain pushed for free elections in Eastern Europe, but the Soviet Union did not budge.

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The Long Telegram

The United States grew frustrated with the Soviet refusal to provide for free elections. On February 22, 1946, George Kennan, a diplomat at the American Embassy in Moscow, explained his views of the Soviets and why they were not cooperating in what became known as the Long Telegram. Kennan believed that the Soviets’ view of the world came from a traditional sense of insecurity and fear of the West, intensified by the communist ideas of Lenin and Stalin. Communists believed they were in a historical struggle against capitalism. As a result, Kennan argued, it was impossible to reach a permanent settlement with the Soviet Union.

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The Long Telegram

Kennan suggested that the best American policy toward the Soviet Union was containment. He believed that the United States must prevent Soviet expansion. Kennan theorized that eventually the Soviet economic and political system would fall apart, and a war to defeat communism would not be necessary. Truman’s administration adopted the policy.

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Open Ended

SPECULATING

Do you think the Soviets would have agreed with Kennan’s idea that the Soviet’s view of the world came from a traditional sense of insecurity and fear of the West? Why or why not?

The Truman Doctrine

In August 1946, the Soviets turned their attention to the straits of the Dardanelles. The straits were an important route from Soviet ports on the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. Stalin demanded joint control of the Dardanelles with Turkey. President Truman’s advisers saw the Soviet move as part of a plan to control the Middle East. They advised Truman to make a show of force. The president ordered aircraft carriers to protect Turkey and the eastern Mediterranean

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The Truman Doctrine

At about the same time, British troops were helping the Greek government fight a group of Greek Communists who had launched a guerrilla war against the government. However, in February 1947, Britain told the United States that it could no longer afford to help the Greeks due to its weakened economy. Truman asked Congress for $400 million to fight Communist aggression in Turkey and Greece. His speech became known as the Truman Doctrine. Its goal was to help any country resist a Communist takeover.

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After the war, postwar Europe faced serious economic and political problems. Economies were ruined, and many people faced starvation. In 1947, Secretary of State George C. Marshall proposed the Marshall Plan. This recovery program gave European nations financial assistance to rebuild their economies.

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​The Marshall Plan

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Multiple Choice

Based on the graph, what generalization can be made about the Marshall Plan?

• A Germany received the smallest portion of U.S. aid.

• B None of the Axis Powers received aid from the United States.

• C France and Britain received the largest portion of U.S. aid.

• D Only the Allied Powers received U.S. aid

Although Marshall offered help to all nations that needed a recovery program, the Soviet Union and its satellite nations refused the offer. The Marshall Plan poured billions of dollars of supplies, machinery, and food into Western Europe. The recovery weakened the appeal of communism and opened up new markets for trade.

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​The Marshall Plan

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Open Ended

THEORIZING

How much aid did Germany receive under the Marshall Plan? Do you think Germany’s receiving aid benefited the United States? Why or why not?

In 1948, the United States, Great Britain, and France merged their German zones and allowed the Germans to run their own government. This created the Federal Republic of Germany, which became known as West Germany. The zones in Berlin were also merged, and West Berlin became part of West Germany. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic, or East Germany.

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​The Creation of NATO

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Convinced that they would never get reparations from Germany, the Soviets blockaded West Berlin in 1948, hoping to force the United States to abandon the city. Truman responded by ordering the air force to fly supplies to the beleaguered city. The Berlin Airlift lasted until the Soviets reopened the city in 1949.

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​The Creation of NATO

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The blockade convinced many Americans that the Soviets were intent on conquest and that the United States must form a military alliance with Western Europe. By April 1949, an agreement had been reached to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which was a mutual defense alliance

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​The Creation of NATO

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NATO originally consisted of 12 countries: the United States, Canada, Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Denmark, Portugal, the Netherlands, Norway, Luxembourg, and Iceland. Members of NATO agreed to come to the aid of any member who was attacked. West Germany joined NATO in 1955. The Soviets responded by organizing a military alliance in Eastern Europe known as the Warsaw Pact.

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​The Creation of NATO

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A revolution in China resulted in the creation of a non-Communist government on the island of Formosa (now called Taiwan) and a Communist government in the People’s Republic of China.

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​The Chinese Revolution and New Policies in Japan

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In 1950, the People’s Republic of China and the Soviet Union signed a treaty of friendship and alliance. Many Western leaders feared that China and the Soviet Union would support communist revolutions in other nations. The United States kept formal diplomatic relations only with Taiwan.

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​The Chinese Revolution and New Policies in Japan

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The Chinese revolution brought about a change in American policy toward Japan. At the end of World War II, General Douglas MacArthur had taken charge of occupied Japan. His job was to introduce democracy and to keep Japan from threatening war again.

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​The Chinese Revolution and New Policies in Japan

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However, after the United States lost China as its ally, it adopted policies to help rebuild the Japanese economy. The United States believed that just as West Germany was the key to defending Europe against communism, Japan was the key to defending Asia.

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​The Chinese Revolution and New Policies in Japan

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Open Ended

RECOGNIZING RELATIONSHIP

How did the revolution in China lead to a change in the United States’s policy toward Japan?

After the end of World War II, the Allies divided Korea at the 38th parallel of latitude. Soviet troops controlled the north, while American troops controlled the south. A Communist Korean government formed north of the 38th parallel, and an American-backed government developed to the south

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​The Korean War

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Multiple Choice

What was the significance of the 38th parallel?

• A It was the cause of the Korean War.

• B It was the line that was used in the peace treaty.

• C It formed the border between China and North Korea.

• D It was the 1953 cease-fire line in the Korean War.

Border clashes were common. The Soviets provided military aid to the North Koreans, who quickly built an army. On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops crossed the 38th parallel, driving back the South Korean forces.

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​The Korean War

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Truman saw the invasion of South Korea as a test of the containment policy. He ordered American naval and air power into action. Truman also called on the UN to act. The UN pledged troops, and Truman ordered General MacArthur to send American troops from Japan to Korea

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​The Korean War

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On September 15, 1950, MacArthur ordered an invasion behind enemy lines, which took the North Koreans by surprise. Within weeks the North Korean forces retreated back north of the 38th parallel. MacArthur pushed the North Koreans beyond the 38th parallel and to the northern border with China.

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​The Korean War

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China saw the advancing U.S. and NATO troops as a threat and warned them to stop moving toward its border. The warning was ignored. Hundreds of thousands of Chinese troops then moved into North Korea, once again driving the UN forces south of the 38th parallel. MacArthur wanted approval to expand the war against China. He asked for a blockade of Chinese ports and the bombing of Chinese cities with atomic bombs

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​China Enters the War

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President Truman refused MacArthur’s demands. MacArthur openly criticized the president for not expanding the war into China. A frustrated Truman was determined to maintain control of policy and to show that he was the commander of the military. In April 1951, Truman fired MacArthur for insubordination. Many Americans criticized Truman, but Congress and military leaders supported his decision.

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​China Enters the War

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Multiple Choice

“In war there can be no substitute for victory. There are some who for varying reasons would appease Red China. They are blind to history’s clear lesson, for history teaches with unmistakable emphasis that appeasement but begets new and bloodier wars.” —General MacArthur’s Farewell Speech to Congress, April 19, 1951

What conflict with President Truman is General MacArthur referring to in this speech?

• A Truman’s wish to use nuclear weapons in Korea

• B the strategy of using brinkmanship in the Korean conflict

• C the strategy of a limited war in the Korean conflict

• D Truman’s insistence on expanding the Korean War into China

Poll

EVALUATING

Do you think President Truman was justified in firing General MacArthur?

• YES

• NO

By mid-1951, UN forces had pushed Chinese and North Korean forces back across the 38th parallel. Negotiations to end the increasingly unpopular war began in July 1951. Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was determined to end the war, was elected president in 1952, and in July 1953, an armistice was signed and a cease-fire went into effect. The battle line between the two sides in Korea became the border between North Korea and South Korea. A “demilitarized zone” (DMZ) separated them..

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​Armistice Ends Fighting

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The Korean War marked a turning point in the Cold War. Before 1950, the United States used political pressure and economic aid to contain communism. After the Korean War started, the United States began a military buildup. Before 1950, containment of communism focused on Europe. After the Korean War, the United States became more militarily involved in Asia. The United States formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954. The United States also began flowing aid to French forces fighting Communists in Vietnam.(DMZ) separated them..

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​Chan​ges in Policy