IB Psych Lesson Jan. 30-Feb.2

​Review...

By Tanya HS]

Match

Match the following

• The brain's ability to change as a result of experience.

• The part of the brain at the front that is associated with regulating behavior, executive functions and decision making.

• A neurotransmitter associated with antisocial and aggressive behavior, as well as depression and a lot of other disorders.

• Being able to assert one's authority over another and maintain a high position (social status).

• A threat that comes from another person or group of people (as opposed to a natural threat, like a wild animal).

Neuroplasticity

Prefrontal cortex (PFC)

Serotonin

Social dominance

Social threat

• Neuroplasticity

• Prefrontal cortex (PFC)

• Serotonin

• Social dominance

• Social threat

Multiple Choice

What is the primary function of the frontal lobe?

• Regulating sensory input

• Regulating impulsive behavior and decision-making

• Managing heart rate and breathing

• Processing auditory stimuli

Multiple Choice

What are the two systems in the dual-process model of decision-making?

• Logical and Emotional

• Fast and Automatic; Slow and Deliberate

• Rational and Instinctive

• Immediate and Gradual

Multiple Choice

What behavior did participants with vmPFC damage display during the Iowa Gambling Task?

• They favored long-term rewards.

• They chose decks randomly.

• They relied on immediate rewards and ignored long-term consequences.

• They avoided all high-risk decisions.

Multiple Choice

What is the amygdala’s role in experiencing fear?

• It regulates breathing during fear responses.

• It processes threatening stimuli and activates fight-or-flight responses.

• It prevents emotional responses to threats.

• It is responsible for logical decision-making.

Multiple Choice

What did SM’s case demonstrate about the amygdala?

• Damage to the amygdala increases fear response.

• Damage to the amygdala eliminates fear response.

• The amygdala is unrelated to fear.

• Damage to the amygdala improves survival instincts.

Multiple Choice

What did Albert et al.'s study on testosterone and rats conclude?

• Testosterone is unrelated to aggression.

• Testosterone implants restored aggressive behavior in castrated rats.

• Testosterone reduction increased aggression.

• Testosterone affects only social dominance, not aggression.

Match

Match the following

• Acting on instinct without considering outcomes or consequences.

• Acting in a threatening or hostile manner towards another person.

• The emotional centre of the brain, responsible for generating emotion.

• The choice of an action, belief or strategy.

• Brain imaging technology that measures the activity in the brain.

Impulsive behavior

Aggression

Amygdala

Decision making

fMRI

• Impulsive behavior

• Aggression

• Amygdala

• Decision making

• fMRI

Multiple Choice

Why might aggression be considered an evolutionary adaptation?

• It reduces competition for resources.

• It ensures isolation and reduced threats.

• It helps in defending oneself, maintaining dominance, and securing resources.

• It eliminates all forms of social interactions.

Multiple Choice

What is the relationship between testosterone and the amygdala?

• Testosterone decreases activity in the amygdala.

• Testosterone increases amygdala activity during social threats.

• Testosterone has no effect on the amygdala.

• Testosterone only affects the prefrontal cortex.

Multiple Choice

What two factors are essential for testosterone to influence aggression?

• Diet and sleep.

• Motivation and arousal.

• Exercise and relaxation.

• Environmental stimuli and social connections.

Multiple Choice

When is testosterone most likely to increase aggression?

• During moments of rest.

• When no social threats are present.

• When a person feels threatened and is motivated to defend their status.

• When serotonin levels are high.

Multiple Choice

What role does motivation play in testosterone-related aggression?

• It reduces the likelihood of an aggressive response.

• It determines whether the individual will act aggressively to assert dominance.

• It eliminates the need for physical readiness.

• It prevents emotional arousal.

Multiple Choice

How does testosterone prepare the body for aggression?

• By decreasing heart rate and adrenaline levels.

• By suppressing the amygdala's response.

• By increasing adrenaline and physical readiness through amygdala activation.

• By eliminating the fight-or-flight response.

Multiple Choice

Why might aggression be used to respond to social threats?

• To assert social dominance and maintain status.

• To reduce physical readiness and adrenaline levels.

• To avoid confrontation altogether.

• To increase serotonin levels.

Multiple Choice

Why is it incorrect to say testosterone directly causes aggression?

• Testosterone has no biological effects on the brain.

• Aggression depends on additional factors like motivation and perception of threat.

• Aggression is solely influenced by serotonin.

• Testosterone only affects physical attributes, not behavior.

Match

Match the following

• grafman et al. conclusion

• bechara et al. conclusion

• feinstein et al. conclusion

• albert et al. conclusion

• Ahs et al. conclusion

vmPFC damage can increase the risk for aggressive behavior; not necessarily the size of the lesion

vmPFC plays a role in our ability to use system 2 processing. if this part is damaged, it can affect

amygdala is a key part of the brain responsible for our ability to experience fear

causation relationship between testosterone levels & aggressive behavior in rats

the amygdala is responsible for the anxiety response in specific phobias

• vmPFC damage can increase the risk for aggressive behavior; not necessarily the size of the lesion

• vmPFC plays a role in our ability to use system 2 processing. if this part is damaged, it can affect

• amygdala is a key part of the brain responsible for our ability to experience fear

• causation relationship between testosterone levels & aggressive behavior in rats

• the amygdala is responsible for the anxiety response in specific phobias

Multiple Choice

What is the culture of honor?

• A cultural norm where insults are ignored.

• A societal code emphasizing reputation and violent responses to threats.

• A historical trend with no modern implications.

• A focus on individualism and non-violent resolution.

Multiple Choice

Why was the Southern United States historically associated with a culture of honor?

• Due to its industrial economy.

• Because of its lawless frontier and herding economy.

• Because of strong law enforcement.

• Due to a history of pacifism.

Multiple Choice

What behavior did Southerners exhibit after being insulted compared to Northerners?

• Less likely to retaliate.

• More likely to perceive a threat to their reputation and prepare for aggression.

• Showed no physiological or emotional changes.

• Avoided conflict entirely.

Multiple Choice

What physiological change was observed in insulted Southerners?

• Increased cortisol and testosterone levels.

• Decreased heart rate.

• Lower stress hormones.

• Reduced aggression indicators.

Multiple Choice

What was the main manipulation in Cohen et al.'s experiments?

• Participants were asked to complete a stressful test.

• A confederate bumped into participants and insulted them in a hallway.

• Participants were exposed to images of angry faces.

• Participants were given a drink to manipulate hormone levels.

Multiple Choice

In the "chicken game" experiment, how did insulted Southerners behave?

• They avoided confrontation entirely.

• They stood their ground longer before stepping aside.

• They immediately moved aside to avoid conflict.

• They reacted the same as Northerners.

Multiple Choice

How does damage to the vmPFC affect decision-making?

• It has no impact on decision-making abilities.

• It leads to impulsive decisions and a focus on immediate rewards.

• It enhances logical reasoning and long-term planning.

• It improves the ability to assess risks accurately.

Multiple Choice

What did Cohen et al. conclude about the interplay between biology and culture in aggression?

• Aggression is entirely biologically driven.

• Cultural values significantly influence biological responses like hormone levels.

• Aggression is unrelated to cultural values.

• Biological responses occur independently of social context.

Match

Match the studies on the left with their detailed findings, methodologies, and implications on the right.

• Revealed that damage to the vmPFC impairs decision-making, favoring immediate rewards over long-term consequences, supporting the dual-process model of decision-making.

• Showed that bilateral damage to the amygdala eliminates fear responses; SM engaged with dangerous stimuli without showing fear, offering insights into the amygdala’s role in survival.

• Found increased amygdala activation during phobic conditions, correlating with subjective distress and fight-or-flight readiness, highlighting the neural mechanisms of specific phobias.

• Revealed that Southerners have heightened physiological responses to insults, including increased cortisol and testosterone, reflecting cultural influences on aggression.

• found that individuals with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) exhibited significantly higher levels of aggression and violent behavior compared to those with lesions in other brain areas, indicating a strong link between this specific brain region and aggressive tendencies; importantly, the study also showed that the severity of the brain damage did not directly correlate with the level of aggression, but rather the disruption to family activities seemed to play a role in triggering aggressive behaviors.

Bechara et al.

Feinstein et al

Ahs et al.

Cohen et al.

Grafman et al.

• Bechara et al.

• Feinstein et al

• Ahs et al.

• Cohen et al.

• Grafman et al.

Multiple Choice

What did studies on testosterone and aggression in animals reveal?

• Testosterone only affects social bonding, not aggression.

• Testosterone decreases aggression in competitive situations.

• Increased testosterone levels correlate with increased aggression.

• Testosterone has no effect on aggression in animals.

Match

Match the terms on the left with their correct descriptions

• Showed that testosterone modulates amygdala activity, enhancing threat approach behaviors and decreasing threat avoidance, contributing to understanding of social dominance mechanisms.

• Found that testosterone increases amygdala reactivity to angry faces, linking it to aggression and providing evidence of a biological mechanism for dominance behavior.

• Demonstrated that testosterone restoration in castrated rats reinstated aggressive behavior, establishing a causal relationship between testosterone and aggression.

• Regulates impulses and decision-making; damage can increase aggression and lead to socially inappropriate behavior.

• Processes fear stimuli and triggers fight-or-flight responses; associated with emotional regulation.

Radke et al.

Goetz et al.

Albert et al.

Frontal Lobe

Amygdala

• Radke et al.

• Goetz et al.

• Albert et al.

• Frontal Lobe

• Amygdala

Multiple Choice

What was the main purpose of Passamonti et al.’s study?

• To prove serotonin directly causes violence

• To see how low serotonin affects brain responses to emotional faces

• To test whether tryptophan improves memory

• To compare aggressive and non-aggressive criminals

Multiple Choice

How did the researchers in the Passomonti et al. study reduce serotonin levels in participants?

• By giving them a drink without tryptophan

• By using brain stimulation

• By exposing them to angry faces

• By giving them SSRIs

Multiple Choice

Why is tryptophan important?

• It blocks serotonin receptors

• It increases dopamine levels

• It calms the amygdala

• It is used to create serotonin

Multiple Choice

What research method was used to measure brain activity in the Passomonti et al. study?

• CT scan

• fMRI

• PET scan

• EEG

Multiple Choice

When serotonin was low, which brain area showed reduced activity in the Passomonti et al. study?

• Prefrontal cortex

• Occipital lobe

• Hippocampus

• Cerebellum

Multiple Choice

Communication between which two areas was weakened in the Passomonti et al. study?

• Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area

• Hippocampus and thalamus

• Motor cortex and somatosensory cortex

• Amygdala and prefrontal cortex

Multiple Choice

What does the prefrontal cortex normally help regulate?

• Balance

• Vision

• Impulse control and decision-making

• Language production

Multiple Choice

According to the Passomonti et al. study, low serotonin may lead to aggression because it:

• Increases memory for angry faces

• Reduces the brain’s ability to control emotional responses

• Strengthens emotional control

• Improves threat detection

Multiple Choice

A study lowered serotonin by removing tryptophan from a drink. Which inference best distinguishes correlation from causation in its findings on violent behavior?

• Brain activity changes correlate with violent behavior

• Low tryptophan guarantees aggressive incidents

• Lower serotonin directly causes violent acts

• Participants became violent due to scanner stress

Open Ended

What is neuroplasticity?

Open Ended

In the Rosenzweig & Bennett study, what was the main difference between the rats’ environments?

Open Ended

Which part of the brain became heavier and thicker in the enriched rats?

Open Ended

Name one brain structure that research shows is smaller in neglected or impoverished children.

Open Ended

What brain area is most associated with planning, self-control, and decision-making?

Open Ended

What brain structure is most involved in emotion and threat detection?

Open Ended

According to Lazar et al., what long-term activity was linked to changes in the prefrontal cortex?

Open Ended

What happened to the amygdala’s activity in participants who received mindfulness training (Desbordes et al.)?

Open Ended

Explain why enriched environments caused rats to develop thicker brains.

Open Ended

Why can psychologists not ethically perform deprivation experiments on human children?

Open Ended

Explain how childhood poverty or neglect might affect the hippocampus or amygdala.

Open Ended

Why does mindfulness training rely heavily on the prefrontal cortex?

Open Ended

Explain why the Lazar et al. study supports the idea of neuroplasticity.

Open Ended

Why is reduced amygdala activity useful for emotional regulation?

Open Ended

Explain the relationship between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex in emotional control.

Open Ended

A child grows up in a home with books, music, conversation, and puzzles. Use neuroplasticity to predict how this might affect their brain development.

Open Ended

A student claims: “Meditation can’t change the brain because thoughts aren’t physical.” Use evidence from the chapter to explain why this is incorrect.

Open Ended

Explain how mindfulness training could reduce violent or impulsive behavior using the PFC–amygdala relationship.

Open Ended

The Desbordes et al. study used healthy adults. Explain one limitation of applying these results to violent offenders.

Open Ended

Explain why early childhood is considered a critical period for brain development using evidence from the chapter.

Open Ended

Many treatments focus on symptoms rather than causes. Explain how mindfulness could target underlying brain mechanisms instead.

Open Ended

How does the Rosenzweig and Bennett experiment show that our environment can influence brain development?

Open Ended

How does research show that childhood environment can influence brain development?

Open Ended

How might meditation and/or mindfulness improve the functions of the prefrontal cortex?

Open Ended

How might the neuroplasticity benefits of mindfulness be used to reduce violence?

Match

Match the following

• Placed rats in enriched (EC) or impoverished condition (IC). Studies of their brains showed that those that had been in the stimulating environment had an increased thickness in the cortex. The frontal lobe, which is associated with thinking, planning, and decision making was heavier in the rats that had been in the stimulating environment. The brains of rats will grow more if they are provided with external stimuli.

• Results: Castrated rats with no access to testosterone had reduced signs of aggression (biting & attacking) and rats without operations (or no change in testosterone) did not change significantly. those with decreased testosterone lost their social position. Conclusion is that testosterone is an evolutionary adaptation increasing chances of survival. testosterone is responsible for aggression and social dominance. Higher testosterone increases aggression and dominance of other rats. By experimenting on rats, researchers are able to determine correlations between biological factors and behavior. Reduced testosterone decreases aggressive behavior and also plays a role in social dominance

• Results showed children who had experienced global neglect had the greatest difference in head circumference, which suggests decreased brain growth and the greatest amount of abnormalities in their brain scans; they had less volume in their corticies. In conclusion children who experience global neglect in the form of sensory deprivation may have less brain growth and fewer neural pathways formed in the brain

• Results: poverty was associated with less white and grey brain matter and smaller hippocampus + amygdala - positive correlation between supportive parenting strategies (praising child for waiting) and higher hipppocampal volume
  Poverty, parenting styles and stress are all factors that can negatively affect the development of neural networks in the hippocampi. High exposure to stress can affect memory because it can lead to reduced development in the hippocampus (responsible for learning and memory)

• Results
  - showed that there was reduced brain activity in the frontal lobe during the low serotonin conditions when the participants were viewing the angry face- Low brain serotonin levels inhibited communication between the amygdala and frontal lobes compared to communication present under normal levels of serotonin. Conclusion
  - Amygdala associated with emotional reactions, and frontal lobe associated with regulating emotional reactions, therefore when serotonin levels are low, it may be more difficult for people to control and regulate emotional reactions

Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972)

Albert et a. (1986)

Perry and Pollard (1997)

Luby et al (2013)

Passamonti et al (2012)

• Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972)

• Albert et a. (1986)

• Perry and Pollard (1997)

• Luby et al (2013)

• Passamonti et al (2012)

​Damage to the brain (PFC and/or amygdala)

Injury 

Neglect 

Testosterone

Serotonin

Cultural values (culture of honor)

What factors can influence aggressive behavior?

​Make sure to add the studies that support those factors

Poll

Are people born violent?

• yes

• no

Is antisocial behavior in children nature or nurture? How do we know?

• We are going to look at two remaining factors:

  • Genes

  • Social learning (social cognitive theory)

The extent to which a behavior can be attributed to genetics is called heritability.

For instance, if a behavior is 100% a product of our genetics, it is said to have 100% heritability. If it has 40% heritability, this means that the behavior is 40% genetics and

that the environment explains the other 60%.

​

Studying genetics often involves using twin studies. Twin studies rely on the fact that

identical twins (monozygotic - MZ) have 100% of their genetic material in common,

whereas fraternal twins (dizygotic - DZ) have 50% in common. What happens in

these studies is that they get a bunch of identical and fraternal twins together and they

measure a particular behavior. For example, they might see how aggressive or violent

they are, or their rate of committing violent crimes. What they do is they see how

similar the identical twins are to each other, and then calculate this average similarity

across all the identical twins. Then, they see how similar the fraternal twins are to one

another and again calculate the overall average.

Over 1,000 MZ and DZ twins and triplets from diverse background in Southern California were studied. Antisocial behaviors included levels of aggression, psychopathic traits and disordered conduct (e.g. misbehaving). Multiple tests were used to measure levels of antisocial behavior including self-reports, teacher and caregiver questionnaires. The specific heritability scores for the different reporting methods were: caregiver report = 67%, child report = 42% and teacher report = 55%. Generally speaking, the results showed that heritability was around 50%, meaning that antisocial behavior (including aggression) in children was about 50% genetics and 50% other factors.

​

Baker et al. 2007

​redrum

Baker's et al.'s findings are supported by a meta-analysis of 12 twin and 3 adoption studies carried out between 1975-1994 that showed the same finding: 50% heritability for antisocial behavior. However, the effects of genetics was stronger in extreme antisocial behavior, suggesting these types of extremes are more genetically based and less influenced by environmental factors.

​

​Meta-analysis of twin & adoption studies - Mason 1994

In this study, 32 sets of identical twins were studied. These twins had been separated shortly after birth and were adopted into different families. From this study, the researchers calculated that the heritability of antisocial behavior in children was 41% and in adults was 28%. This suggests that genetics and environment are contributing factors towards antisocial behavior. It also suggests that as we get older, the environment might be more of a factor and the influence of genes reduces.

​

Adoption study on identical twins and antisocial behavior: Grove et al. 1990

Limitations

One limitation of making conclusions about genetics from twin studies is that

perhaps the similarities between the identical twins could be explained because they are treated more the same than fraternal twins, because they look exactly the same (Raine, 2013). Thus, their environment might be affecting their behavior in a more similar way than for fraternal twins. For instance, in fraternal twins one might be a boy and the other a girl. Perhaps they are raised differently because of their gender. This might affect the results of studies comparing identical and fraternal twins.

​What kind of studies are these? Does that add to the limitations?

Match

Match the following

• Sequences of DNA found in chromosomes in cells. The effects of gene expression on brain activity could be how genes can influence human behavior.

• The extent to which a behavior can be attributed to genetics is called

• In this study, 32 sets of identical twins were studied. These twins had been separated shortly after birth and were adopted into different families. From this study, the researchers calculated that the heritability of antisocial behavior in children was 41% and in adults was 28%. This suggests that genetics and environment are contributing factors towards antisocial behavior. It also suggests that as we get older, the environment might be more of a factor and the influence of genes reduces.

• meta-analysis of 12 twin and 3 adoption studies carried out between 1975-1994 that showed the same finding: 50% heritability for antisocial behavior. However, the effects of genetics was stronger in extreme antisocial behavior, suggesting these types of extremes are more genetically based and less influenced by environmental factors.

• Over 1,000 MZ and DZ twins and triplets from diverse background in Southern California were studied. Antisocial behaviors included levels of aggression, psychopathic traits and disordered conduct (e.g. misbehaving). Multiple tests were used to measure levels of antisocial behavior including self-reports, teacher and caregiver questionnaires. The specific heritability scores for the different reporting methods were: caregiver report = 67%, child report = 42% and teacher report = 55%. Generally speaking, the results showed that heritability was around 50%, meaning that antisocial behavior (including aggression) in children was about 50% genetics and 50% other factors.

genes

heritability

Grove et al. 1990

Mason 1994

Baker et al. 2007

• genes

• heritability

• Grove et al. 1990

• Mason 1994

• Baker et al. 2007

Genes and Behavior

Research in this areas regularly comes to the conclusion that both genes and environmental factors

play a role in behavior. Research into behaviors like antisocial behavior, violence, aggression and crime are no different: these studies regularly show that both genetics and the environment can affect these behaviors.

​

MAOA-L Gene

The MAOA-L gene affects serotonin levels in the brain by influencing how serotonin and other neurotransmitters are broken down after they are used. Here's how it works:
Role of the MAOA Gene:

The MAOA (Monoamine Oxidase A) gene produces an enzyme called monoamine oxidase A. This enzyme is responsible for breaking down neurotransmitters like:

• Serotonin (involved in mood and emotional regulation)

• Dopamine (linked to reward and motivation)

• Norepinephrine (associated with stress and alertness)

MAOA-L Gene

Think of the MAOA gene as part of the brain’s clean-up crew.

Your brain uses chemicals called neurotransmitters (like serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine) to control mood, emotion, and behavior.
Once these chemicals have sent their message, they need to be broken down so the brain doesn’t get overstimulated.

If MAOA works normally → neurotransmitter levels stay balanced

• If MAOA activity is low → neurotransmitters stick around longer than they should

• This can affect:

  • Impulse control

  • Emotional regulation

  • Aggression or risk-taking (especially in certain environments)

MAOA-L Gene

MAOA-L Variant:

• The MAOA-L variant is a version of the gene that leads to lower activity of the monoamine oxidase A enzyme.

• This means the enzyme is less efficient at breaking down serotonin and other neurotransmitters, leading to higher levels of serotonin in certain areas of the brain.

How High Serotonin Levels Affect the Brain:

1. Prefrontal Cortex:

   • Excess serotonin can impair the function of the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for decision-making, impulse control, and regulating emotions.

   • This might make it harder for individuals to control aggressive impulses.

2. Amygdala:

   • The amygdala processes emotions like fear and anger. High serotonin levels might overstimulate or disrupt the amygdala, leading to heightened emotional reactivity or difficulty regulating emotions.

MAOA-L Gene

Connection to Aggression:

• The MAOA-L gene has been nicknamed the "warrior gene" because studies suggest that individuals with this variant may be more prone to impulsive or aggressive behavior, especially when exposed to environmental stressors like abuse or trauma.

• The combination of high serotonin levels and reduced ability to regulate emotions could explain the increased likelihood of aggressive responses.

The MAOA-L gene causes serotonin to build up in the brain due to reduced breakdown, which can disrupt the balance of neurotransmitter activity in areas like the prefrontal cortex and amygdala, potentially contributing to aggressive behavior when combined with environmental factor

Key Study

​Supporting Study

​