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Snowflakes are formed by water droplets freezing onto bits of dust in the atmosphere, but they come in many different shapes. The most well-known is the six-pointed, star-like snowflake, paper versions of which can be found in the windows of many classrooms. But some snowflakes are simple six-sided disks, and others are tiny six-sided columns. Two main factors determine the shape of an individual snowflake crystal: the temperature and level of moisture in the air. Colder temperatures, below -22°C (-7.6°F), produce simple disks and columns. The familiar star-shaped crystals form in warmer temperatures. And moister air gives rise to more complex shapes with more branches and details.

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Fluoride is a mineral that is added to public drinking water supplies in much of the United States in order to reduce levels of tooth decay. When a tooth is forming, fluoride strengthens the enamel, or outside coating of the teeth. The fluoride mixes with the enamel, making it harder. In addition, when fluoride mixes with saliva, it can protect teeth from sugars, further reducing tooth decay. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) states that drinking fluoridated water provides additional protection even for people who simply brush with fluoride toothpaste. Reports on the impacts of fluoridated drinking water have concluded that it reduces tooth decay by about twenty-five percent.

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Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are both processes by which the atoms of matter are altered to create energy, but they are opposite processes. In fission, one atom splits into two, whereas fusion combines two lighter atoms into a larger one. Although both processes release energy, fission is the more controllable reaction. It is used in nuclear power plants to produce electricity, usually with Uranium-235. Fusion, on the other hand, is the process that powers the sun. Fusion releases an enormous amount of energy, several times that of fission. Fusion is used not for power plants but for thermonuclear weapons.

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Beavers in the wild build dams of sticks and dirt across streams and brooks, blocking the flow of water and forming ponds and wetlands. This behavior can cause conflicts with people when beaver dams flood roadways and property. If the dam is destroyed, the beavers will rebuild, because when they hear running water, their instinct is to dam it. Engineers cleverly resolved this issue by designing a special pipe that is inserted through the middle of the beaver dam. The pipe's end is located away from the dam and fenced off, so beavers can't block it. Water flows through the pipe, both preserving the beaver's pond habitat and protecting people's property.

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In 1969, Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identified certain stages of mourning that people go through when they experience a loss. In the first stage, the person denies what has happened. Next comes anger, and then bargaining: "If I promise to do this, then everything will be better." This is often followed by depression—sadness about the loss. The final stage of grief is acceptance. Acceptance isn't the same as happiness, but rather is an acknowledgement of the need to get on with living despite the loss. Kübler-Ross said that these feelings are all a natural part of mourning, but that each person grieves in his or her unique way.

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The color of your hair depends on how much of each type of melanin, or pigment, it contains. All hair colors, from black to blond and everything in between, result from the blending of just two types of melanin: eumelanin (dark) and phaeomelanin (light). Each hair grows out of an individual follicle, or tiny tube beneath the skin's surface. Pigment cells in the follicle inject melanin into the hair shaft as the hair develops and grows longer. In later years, the follicle slows its production of melanin. Hairs with less melanin appear gray in color. If melanin production shuts down altogether, then the new hairs, lacking any melanin, will be white.

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As Africa's population of wild lions decreases, Tanzania's Ruaha National Park provides an important habitat for the remaining lion population. However, lions and local villagers living around the park often come into conflict: lions kill valuable livestock, and villagers shoot the lions. To address this issue, the Ruaha Carnivore Project has worked closely with villagers. The Project has introduced stronger fences, warning systems, and guard dogs to reduce livestock losses. To further encourage animal conservation, the Project provides education about the importance of protecting lions. Importantly, the Project has also provided benefits, such as local health care and scholarships, to compensate villagers for the dangers they endure. These efforts have paid off, as both the villagers' livestock losses and lion deaths have declined.

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The Iberian Peninsula lies on the southwestern tip of the continent of Europe. The two major nations on the peninsula are Spain and Portugal. Spain is roughly five times larger—about twice the size of the state of Oregon—whereas Portugal, to the west, is slightly smaller than Indiana. Correspondingly, the population of Spain is about forty-eight million people, while that of Portugal is about eleven million. The countries maintain separate languages (primarily Spanish in Spain and Portuguese in Portugal) and distinct cultures. Although both countries have bullfighting, there's an interesting difference: in Spain, a bullfight is a fight to the death, with the matador almost always killing the bull; in Portugal, killing a bull in the ring was banned in 1928.

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A biological toilet, or composting toilet, isn't hooked up to sewer lines. The unit has a seat and a lid, but not a toilet bowl filled with water. How does it function? First, the waste is deposited into the unit in the normal way. After that, natural processes take over: ninety percent of the waste is water, which evaporates into the air. The toilet usually has fans and ventilation to assist in this process. The solid part of the waste then remains in a chamber, where it decomposes. Specialized bacteria digest the waste, given the right combination of oxygen, moisture, and heat. When the decomposition process is complete, the compost from the toilet can be removed and used in gardens and around trees.

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In the 1990s, a group of women in the African country of Gambia organized to take action on plastic bags. Lacking any recycling programs, people had been throwing their used plastic bags on the ground, along with other trash. Because plastic doesn't decompose the way other waste does, piles of bags accumulated. What could they do? The women came up with a novel answer for the plastic bag puzzle. They collected and cleaned old bags, then reused them by cutting them into strips and crocheting or knitting items such as purses from the plastic. Selling their handiwork at markets, the women raised money for additional recycling programs, which enabled them to further reduce plastic litter.

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