What is the most important determinant of intracellular osmotic pressure?

• Calcium

• Sodium

• Chloride

• Potassium

What is the most effective initial treatment for symptomatic hypercalcemia?

• Intravenous potassium chloride

• Intravenous calcium chloride

• Loop diuretic

• Mechanical ventilation

What is the main cause of nonsurgical bleeding following massive blood transfusion?

• Hypomagnesemia

• Hypocalcemia

• Dilutional thrombocytopenia

• Hyperkalemia

What is the renal response to acidemia?

• Decreased production of ammonia

• Increased ammonia production

• Decreased reabsorption of filtered HCO3-

• Increased excretion of titratable acids

What is the goal of intravenous therapy for potassium deficit?

• Induce demyelinating lesions

• Correct the entire deficit

• Remove the patient from immediate danger

• Increase plasma sodium concentrations

What is the most common cause of metabolic alkalosis?

• Diarrhea

• Vomiting

• Hypocalcemia

• Hyperkalemia

What is the effect of chronic respiratory acidosis on plasma HCO3-?

• Varies

• Remains unchanged

• Increases

• Decreases

What is the main hazard of increased extracellular volume?

• Cardiac arrhythmias

• Hypocalcemia

• Impaired gas exchange

• Respiratory arrest

What is the most important factor explaining acid-base balance in physiological systems?

• Total weak acid concentration

• Strong ion difference

• Hemoglobin

• Bicarbonate buffer

What is the recommended timing for transfusion initiation in patients with normal hematocrit?

• After any blood loss

• Only in surgical cases

• Before any blood loss

• After losses greater than 10% to 20% of blood volume