Shaw v Reno

Equal Protection Clause

• A Fourteenth Amendment provision requiring governments to treat similarly situated individuals alike under the law.
• A constitutional rule allowing states to favor certain groups when regulating elections.
• A constitutional authority granting courts power to override all legislative classifications.
• A constitutional guarantee limiting Congress’s ability to pass nationwide civil‑rights laws.

Racial Gerrymandering

• The drawing of electoral district boundaries primarily based on race, often raising constitutional concerns.
• The redrawing of districts based solely on population changes from the census.
• The practice of aligning districts with partisan voting patterns to secure electoral advantage.
• The creation of districts by independent commissions rather than state legislatures.

Majority‑Minority District

• An electoral district in which members of a racial or ethnic minority constitute a numerical majority.
• An electoral district designed to represent multiple political parties equally.
• An electoral district in which incumbents consistently receive the majority of votes.
• An electoral district drawn exclusively from urban population centers.

Reapportionment

• The redistribution of congressional seats among states based on population changes measured by the census.
• The process of redrawing legislative district boundaries within a state.
• The assignment of polling locations to specific voting precincts.
• The judicial review of state compliance with federal election laws.

Redistricting

• The process of redrawing electoral district boundaries following reapportionment or population shifts.
• The reassignment of congressional seats among states every ten years.
• The removal of outdated polling equipment from local precincts.
• The certification of election results by state executive officials.

Fourteenth Amendment

• A constitutional amendment guaranteeing citizenship, due process, and equal protection under the law.
• A constitutional amendment establishing universal suffrage for all citizens regardless of age.
• A constitutional amendment granting the federal government full control over state elections.
• A constitutional amendment limiting congressional authority over interstate commerce.

Strict Scrutiny

• The highest level of judicial review, requiring laws to serve a compelling interest and be narrowly tailored.
• A level of review requiring laws to demonstrate only a rational connection to policy goals.
• A principle directing courts to defer to legislative judgment in nearly all cases.
• A standard applied exclusively to economic regulations and taxation policies.

Compelling Governmental Interest

• A critically important objective that can justify laws affecting fundamental rights under strict scrutiny.
• An objective reflecting majority public opinion during an election cycle.
• An administrative goal related to bureaucratic efficiency and cost reduction.
• An interest determined solely by state legislatures without judicial involvement.

One Person, One Vote

• The principle requiring legislative districts to have roughly equal populations to ensure equal representation.
• The principle allowing states to weight votes based on property ownership.
• The principle permitting legislatures to allocate districts by geographic size.
• The principle requiring unanimous consent for the passage of election laws.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

• A federal law designed to eliminate racial discrimination in voting and expand federal enforcement powers.
• A federal law permitting states to establish individualized voter‑qualification standards.
• A federal law establishing uniform nationwide voter identification requirements.
• A federal law transferring election oversight authority exclusively to federal courts.