It is also bound up with controversy since it reflects a Eurocentric bias, with pejorative connotations of backward versus advancement and an assumption of superiority versus inferiority. Sociologists are not always in agreement about what development compromises and how it can be measured, which adds to the controversial nature of the concept

The idea of development can be traced to industrialization, the period that gave birth to sociology as a discipline.

During this time, societies were shifting from an economy based on agriculture to one associated with manufacturing industries on mechanized production. Some sociologists view the process of development as evolutionary, occurring over a period of time, with a positive outcome to which all countries must have aspire in order to be considered as progressive.

Some present development as a model of western standards that sets the pace for others to follow and that underdeveloped societies must emulate.

Some present Development as a model of ...................that sets the pace for others to follow and that............................ .

(a)  

Western societies

Originally associated with Western Europe now includes prosperous countries influenced by Europe for example Australia, Brazil, Canada and the USA.

Western societies

Originally associated with ............. now includes ............... countries influenced by Europe for example Australia, .............................. .

(a)  

Developed country

One that has a highly industrialized economy, a high level of economic growth and advanced technological structures.

What is considered as a Developed country ?

(a)  

Postindustrial society

One in which the service sector is more predominant than the industrial sector.

Define a Postindustrial society

(a)  

The terms used for developed and developing countries differ for each organization. In addition as a result of the diverse nature of developing countries, each organization uses sub categories to further distinguish between countries.

Barbados ranks the highest in the human development index in the Caribbean.

Some countries considered to be high income by the World Bank, are neither advanced nor developed in The categorizations of the IMF and the UNDP. These include the Bahamas, Croatia, Saudi Arabia and Trinidad and Tobago.

Indicators of development

Development connotes progress towards an improved quality of life, economic prosperity and advancement in social, Political, technological cultural spheres.

There are two major categories that are used as indicators of development:

1.Economic, which focuses on material aspects that are easily measurable.

2.Human and social, which emphasizes qualitative areas such as health and education.

Indicators of development

Development connotes progress towards (a)   .

There are two major categories that are used as indicators of development, thy are ?

Economic indicators

Economic or material indicators are more quantitative in nature and include aspects such as:

Gross National product ( GNP): The sum total of goods and services that are increasingly produced by people in a country.

Gross domestic product GDP the average national income of a country.

Per capita income the national income divided by the Total population.

Inflation rate the yearly increase in prices which affects the cost of living.

Investments by the public and private sectors.

Trade balance the difference between the amount of goods that are imported and the amount of the exported.

Fiscal balance the difference between how much is spent by a country and how much is earned.

Economic indicators

Economic or material indicators are more quantitative in nature and include aspects such as what ? Give (7) .

(a)  

Define Gross National product ( GNP)

(a)  

Define Gross domestic product GDP

(a)  

Define Per capita income

(a)  

Define Inflation rate

(a)  

Define Trade balance

(a)  

Define Fiscal balance

(a)  

Though these are good indicators of development they may not give a realistic view if used alone. For example, GDP gives no information about how our countries income is spent. For example how much is allocated to health, education, infrastructure, defense and so on. On its own GDP does not give a true reflection of the economic inequalities that exist, nor of the spiraling increases in the cost of living that affect most low-income households.

Developing country one that is in the process of becoming more industrialized.

Define a Developing country

(a)  

Undeveloped country one that is basically preindustrial an agrarian.

Undeveloped country

(a)  

Advanced society used interchangeably with developed and postindustrial society.

An Advanced society is ?

(a)  

Indicators of developments criteria used to measure levels of development, such as gross domestic product GDP, gross national product GNP, literacy, health and so on.

Cost of living the average cost of basic commodities needed to survive, for example food, clothing, housing, health care transport and so on.

Cost of Living

(a)  

Social indicators

Research has shown that countries with similar GNPs and GDPs may rank Differently on human and social scales , And for this reason the human development index HDI is used.

The HDI measures development not only in economic terms but also in relation to other social dimensions of health and levels of education.

These three dimensions economics, health and education are gauged by 4 indicators.

1.Health - life expectancy at birth

2.Education

1. Mean years of schooling for adults age 25

2. Expected years of schooling based on enrollment by all levels of education from the official age of entry to 18 years.

3.Economic / living standards- Gross national income per capita

The HDI has been improved over the years to reflect more fairness and equality however it is argued that other factors also need to be considered. For example per capita income can give some indication of the quality of life enjoyed by the average citizen but does not enlighten us about the levels of poverty not exist. Karl Marx emphasized how wealth may be an equally distributed in a country, And this unequal distribution may not be reflected in economic indicators.

Karl Marx emphasized how wealth

(a)  

Some questions that could be asked regarding cultural development are:

· Are countries able to maintain the existing culture or is it being eroded by the influence of other cultures?

· How are woman, children and marginalized groups treated? Uh their rights being infringed.

· Are there opportunities for redress if citizens are treated unfairly?

Sustainable development

Development in which the use of resources Meets present as well as future needs without jeopardizing environmental, economic, and social well-being.

What is Sustainable development ?

(a)  

Political dimensions are gauged according to the western democratic model of a multiparty system and regular free and fair elections in which citizens can exercise their right to vote. Some questions that could be asked regarding political developments are:

(a)  

Theories of developments

People such as August Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons Attempted to explain the social changes that industrialization brought with it.

Theories of developments

People such as ................................... and .......... attempted to explain the social changes that industrialization brought with it.

(a)  

Comte's Stages of evolution comprised of three phases

1. the theological

2. The metaphysical

3. Positivist

Comte's Stages of evolution comprised of three phases. What are they ?

(a)  

Comte Noted that in the first stage explanations of social life are thought to emanate from Supernatural powers and divine intervention. Gods are objective and give meaning to life. In the second stage the metaphysical God is no longer concrete but more abstract. Explanations are still impersonal and abstract reasoning hold sway. In the final phase scientific and objective thinking are used to explain and interpret the world.

Spencer’s evolutionary explanation was based around growth. He envisaged Small hunting societies becoming modern, Industrialized societies by virtue of growth, differentiation and specialization, Integration, and adaption.

Durkheim's thinking was similar to Spencer’s. He believed that social solidarity changed as societies moved from simple to complex. In simple societies there is little division of Labor and there’s dependence on each other.

Durkheim referred to this as mechanical solidarity. In modern society the division of Labor becomes more complex, yet there is still interdependence as there is specialization of tasks. Durkheim Refer to this as organic solidarity. Social ties are weakened and, without social norms to guide people, anomie can result.

Parsons’s Explanation of social change was more substantial than His functionalist’s predecessors as he saw that change brought with its increased differentiation and specialization of roles and functions. Moreover , He argued that the greatest social change was in terms of cultural values, as societies moved from simple to complex. He referred to these as pattern variables, in which relationships differ as societies evolve.

Comte's Stages of evolution comprised of three phases. What are they and explain them.

(a)  

Spencer’s evolutionary explanation was based around growth. Explain.

(a)  

Durkheim's thinking was similar to Spencer’s. He believed that social solidarity changed as societies moved from simple to complex. In simple societies there is little division of Labor and there’s dependence on each other.

Durkheim referred to this as ' (a)   ' .

Explain further.

What was Parsons explanation on social change ?

(a)  

Modernization theory

The evolution slant to social change was continued by modernization Theorists, Chiefly Walt Whitman Rostow, who, in contrast to Parsons, based his explanation on economic growth and transformation. He saw societies as passing through five stages, from traditional to modern, in a linear fashion and over a Period of time.

Rostow Believed that all societies must progress Through the five stages in succession, without skipping a stage. The sequence occurs over a period of time and it can be inferred that poor countries must follow the system to become prosperous. Rostow posits that ‘rich’ Countries can Assist poor countries by giving economic aid to accelerate their growth. For example

· foreign aid can be used to purchase resources to begin the process of industrialization.

· Aid can also be given in terms of population Control measures fear the export of birth control technology

· Industrialization can also be encouraged by providing machinery and sharing better farming practices

Modernization

The process of moving away from the traditional way of life to a more up-to-date lifestyle centered on rational action.

What is Modernization ?

(a)  

Traditional Society

Whereas Parsons focus is on cultural change, Rostow’s theory has an economic slant. Modernization theory is applicable to various societies in a number of ways:

· Modernization theory shows how societies can progress with increased industrialization. Example South Korea and Singapore provide evidence of increasing economies.

· Other countries worldwide including the Caribbean have adopted the modernization model. They have made relatively good process in a shorter time frame than the Western countries did initially. Some ‘rich’ countries Have also assisted poor countries in controlling their population by promoting contraceptive use and providing knowledge of the benefits of birth control.

· The preference for foreign items and tastes shows that acculturation to western standards is evident.

Criticism of modernization theory

· Modernization theory is based on western standards leading to the assumption that western standards are better. Thus, there is an inbuilt bias.

· The theory infers that countries will remain in a state of poverty if they do not immediate the western ways of progress. Countries are blamed for the hardships they face

· Critics have argued that rich countries can actually contribute to delaying the development of poorer countries. Europe benefited at the expense of countries in the Caribbean and Latin America

· The progress of Caribbean countries can be hindered by natural disasters.

What are two Criticism of modernization theory ?

(a)  

What are two other Criticism of modernization theory ?

(a)  

Convergence theory

Convergence theory was formulated by Clark Kerr in the late 1960s.

Though it came several years after modernization theory it reflected some of the same thinking. Kerr was influenced by Ralf Dahrendorf and Daniel Bell, Who argued that there was increasing similarity between Polarized groups.

Convergence theory

Convergence theory was formulated by.......... in the late ....s. Though it came several years after ..................... it reflected some of the same thinking. Kerr was influenced by ................... and........... , Who argued that there was increasing similarity between.................. .

(a)  

Ralph Darendorf Predicted a whittling away of conflict between the working class and the capitalist class as industrial society evolved and the working class became more affluent. Daniel Bell believed that countries with different political ideologies (Capitalists and Marxist) would converge to reflect more western Democratic ideals.

Ralph Darendorf Predicted a................................................. as industrial society evolved and the working class became more affluent. Daniel Bell believed that............................... would converge to ................................. ideals.

(a)  

Clark Kerr Believed that the more industrially developed countries of the world would converge into a single mass industrial society modeled along the lines of the USA. He argued that the differences that exist among societies whether political social or economic would be minimized as modern technology would be the catalyst for prosperity.

Clark Kerr believed that ................................... modeled along the lines of the ....... . He argued that the............................. would be minimized as ............... would be the catalyst for prosperity.

(a)  

Clark Kerr also noted that as they progressed all industrial societies would subscribe to mass education and the mass media would become prominent. Science on rational thinking would reign supreme.

Kerr saw industrial societies as passing through four stages with regard to social position :

1. Increasing social mobility; employees selected by merit.

2. Decreasing differences between strata.

3. Expansion of a middle stratum.

4. Social status more meritocratic, seen via income and occupation.

Kerr saw industrial societies as passing through four stages with regard to social position. What are they ?

(a)  

Improved technology has had a profound influence on global cultures as evidenced by the Internet computers television movies and so on.

The world is now often referred to as a global village. Advanced communications and easy access to countries through international travel have assisted in creating a sense of convergence.

Tight restrictions on capitalist goods are being relaxed. For example mobile phones are now increasingly available in Cuba since Raul Castro came to power in 2008 though the are costly.

similarly to modernization theory there is the assumption that all countries must evolve along the same lines as the West. Convergence theory assumes that what’s good for the West is good for the rest.

Dependency theory

Dependency theory is the polar opposite of the modernization theory and can be described as revolutionary instead of evolutionary.

It was advocated by the Marxist Andre Gunder Frank, who focused on two core areas:

1. The uneven development of the world.

2. The expansion of capitalism and its monopolistic tendencies.

Define 'Dependency Theory ' and list the 2 core areas.

(a)  

Andre Gunder Frank divided countries into ‘Metropolises’ or ‘core’ ( rich, western, 1^st world, developed) and ‘Satellites’ or ‘periphery’ ( poor, developing, underdeveloped) and explained the relationship between them.

He argued that they are close historical, economic, political and social ties that bind satellites to Metropolises And that peripheral countries are forced to be dependent on the core countries and are developed in relation to how far they serve the interests of the metropolis.

Frank furthered his argument by looking at the economic development of countries throughout their history unused empirical evidence from Latin America. He hypothesized that:

· Metropolises tend to develop while satellites under develop.

· Satellites experience the most economic development if and when their links to the Metropolis are the weakest.

· The regions that are the most underdeveloped other ones that had the closest ties to the Metropolis in the past.

What did Andre Gunder Frank hypothesize ?

(a)  

Frank emphasized that under development resulted from the development of capitalism as capitalism expanded it led to monopolistic tendencies. Frank showed the workings of capitalism and how it acts to maintain the backward state of some countries via the satellite. The metropolis expropriates economic surplus from its satellite to use for its own economic development.

According to this line of thinking the majority of the world has become underdeveloped because of exploitation by Western powers. He concluded that developing countries must break links with the world Metropolis for their own benefits on form their own mutual alliances.

The Caribbean has had a history of dependency on western European Countries ( Britain France Spain Netherlands) From colonial times and even after countries gained their independence. forms of dependency can include trade military security financing and preferential agreements. Trade and agreements such as the Lome convention of 1975 - A trade an agreement between the European community and the African Caribbean and Pacific countries- has assisted Caribbean countries in the export of mono-crops.

The US government had also petitioned the World Trade Organization WTO to end peripheral trade agreements between the Eu and the ACP, arguing that the agreement only benefited the EU metropolis countries.

The call for satellites to form their own alliances is considered a good idea as this would benefit the local regions.

Frank’s suggestion to break links with the more advanced countries can be argued to be impractical since countries may only place themselves at the further disadvantage.

Critics have also argued that countries such as Japan have been successful without being either a colony or dependent on western European or American capitalism.

An increasing body of evidence supports the conclusion that foreign investment by rich nations fosters economic growth not economic decline as dependency theorists assert.

Apart from trade funding has been provided by many international organizations.

Programs to control and or prevent uncontrollable birthrates and HIV aids have been carried out by international agencies

Some Caribbean countries are still dependencies of Britain the Netherlands and France or are members of the commonwealth of nations.

Some critics see dependency theory as simplistic in its claims that capitalism is the main cause of equal inequality in the world. They point out that internal factors can also hinder some countries growth.

Political decisions internal struggle civil wars corruption and embracing traditional values that resist change could contribute the limited of developments in many societies.

What do you know about Andre Gunder Frank and the Dependency theory ?

(a)  

World Systems Theory

This approach is a reformulation of dependency theory put forward by Immanuel Wallerstein and also David Kowaleski and Dean Hoover. Wallerstein Sees the the world economy from a more global perspective. Essentially he argues that the world is connected by unequal economic relationships guided by a capitalist economy. He agrees with Frank’s idea of the link between core and periphery But does not propose any radical solutions. He broadens Franks two segment core and periphery to include a semi periphery and external area.

World Systems Theory

This approach is a ........................ theory put forward by .......................................................... . Wallerstein Sees the world economy from a more global perspective. Essentially, he argues that ................................................... . He agrees with Frank’s idea of the link...................... but does not propose any radical solutions. He broadens Franks two segment core and periphery to include a semi periphery and external area.

(a)  

Cash crops refers to products grown on a large scale specifically for sale or for profit and not for the farmer and his family.

Mono crop a single crop that is grown year after year on the same land.

Conglomerate comprises several companies that can be involved in different business areas but yet considered as one body.

Transnational corporation A company or group of companies that has operations in more than one country at the same time . To be referred to as multinational Corporation.

Trade concession Special privileges example tax rebates, grants, cheaper rents that can be given by governments to a trading party or company in return for services granted, for example establishing a business that will stimulate the economy.

Define Mono crop :

(a)  

Define Trade concession

(a)  

What is a Conglomerate

(a)  

What is a Conglomerate ?

(a)  

Globalization theory

There’s no one definition of globalization but the concept reflects the increasing interdependence an interlinking of countries worldwide, not only from an economic standpoint but also culturally and politically. Simply put globalization is the process whereby countries Form deeper and wider ties in trade, finance and communication so that they function As a single integrated body.

Globalization has erased boundaries so that the distance between countries is not problematic.

Define Globalization

(a)  

Immanuel Wallerstein’s contribution is viewed as a forerunner of globalization theory as his analysis prepared the way for that theory’s economic aspects.

Others such as Leslie Sklair agree with Wallerstein That capitalism is the driving force of globalization. They argue that transnational institutions do not just operate on an economic level as transnational corporations but also politically as a transnational capitalist class and culturally via consumerism.

O’Donnell explained three aspects of globalization – economic, cultural and political.

1. Economic: Most writings focus on this aspect emphasizing the dominance of the rich developed world and its relationship to the poor developing world not only in terms of trade but also economic dependency.

2.Cultural: The media has contributed to the perception of the world as one place, a global village as seen via leisure and sporting activities.

3. Political: large multinational corporations wield global power in addition issues that local and national governments cannot deal with are handled by organization such as the IMF, NATO and the UN Etc. international watchdog groups monitor these groups for abuses of power and protests against violations of terms and conditions.

O’Donnell explained three aspects of globalization – economic, cultural and political. Define these aspects.

(a)  

Balance of trade a country's total exports in relation to its total imports over a period of time.

James Rosenau See modern technology as a major force especially as it relates to communication Technology has allowed communication not only within countries but also between and across countries. He focused on the complexity of globalization. He used the concept of distant proximities as dichotomy Indicating that what seems remote can also seem close at hand demographic distances have shrunk people communities and organizations are both distant and close by.

The world has become a global capitalist market and the world’s democracies are involved in free trade albeit free trade that is more advantages for some countries than others.

Industrialization

Industrialization is the process whereby a society is transformed from one that is primarily agricultural to one based on manufacturing. The age of industrialization in Europe was accompanied by economic and social changes.

Define Industrialization

(a)  

The impact of industrialization on population and development has been twofold. There have been some positive changes:

· Industrialization has increased employment opportunities

· Goods are mass produced bringing about cheaper prices.

· countries are able to trade freely with each other removing boundaries that once existed.

· Increased technology better transport an improved infrastructure have improved the quality of life of citizens.

However there have also been negative outcomes of industrialization :

· The increased employment opportunities sometimes brought with them poor working conditions low wages and exploitation of women and children.

· There is a continual loss of culture as people continue to move from villages as a result of preference for urban lifestyles.

· Urbanization has resulted in overcrowded cities human pollution traffic jams and more accidents.

The impact of industrialization on population and development has been twofold. There have been some positive changes: List 3 of these positive changes.

(a)  

The impact of industrialization on population and development has been twofold. There have been some positive changes, however there have also been negative outcomes, List 3 negative outcomes:

(a)  

Urbanization

Urbanization is a process whereby the population living in cities increases as people choose to move away from rural areas and into towns. Urbanization I could as a consequence of the industrial revolution in Europe during which people move from agricultural areas to work in factories.

Define Urbanization :

(a)  

People of developing countries are not just limited to the cities by the economic incentives of better job opportunities. Other factors include continued aggression of farmland and loss of interest in traditional agricultural lifestyles

The city also may provide better opportunities for schooling, recreation and health care, and better transport and infrastructure. however rapid urbanization results in competition for these same resources Leading to urban poverty.

security of tenure guarantee to live in a dwelling without fear of being removed, forcefully or otherwise.

What is security of tenure ?

(a)  

Migration

Migration is defined as the movement of people across a specific boundary national or international to establish a new permanent place or residence.

The UN defines permanent as a change of residence that lasts more than one year thus daily commuters cannot be considered as migrants. Note though that some of them used to migration to include temporary movement that is more seasonal in nature. For example University students or harvesters.

Migration can also be short term many people move for vacation purposes or short contractual employment arrangements.

Define Migration

(a)  

Migration can be broken down into the following four categories:

· Emigration - Movement out of the population. Thus one can be an emmigrant or be in the process of emigrating.

· Immigration: Movement into the population. process of immigrating.

· External migration - Movement from one country to another; also Referred to as national migration or regional migration. The term is also used interchangeably with immigration or emigration.

· Internal migration - Movement within a country also known as national migration. This can be rural to urban, urban to rural, rural to rural, urban to urban or state to state.

Migration can be broken down into the following four categories:

· ............... - Movement out of the population. Thus one can be an emmigrant or be in the process of emigrating.

·................. : Movement into the population. One can be referred to as an immigrant or be in the process of immigrating.

· External migration - Define

· Internal migration - Define

(a)  

Movement within a country also known as national migration. This can be rural to urban, urban to rural, rural to rural, urban to urban or state to state. Internal migration is most significant in terms of rural to urban movement. In developing countries this creates problems in urban areas such as congestion, Homelessness and competition for scarce resources.

The History of the Caribbean is characterized by migration. Amerindians, colonialism, slavery and indentureship.

Migration can be forced/impelled or voluntary /free. In the former case people sometimes have no option but to move from an area for example as a result of natural disasters economic reasons such as slavery or religious or social imposition. Some choices so Margaret may be partially impelled for example if there is a perceived physical or human threat. migration occurs through choice because people are looking for improved quality of life or personal freedom. however there are restrictions to free movement political economic, social, and other conditions must be met before permission can be granted to enter a country.

Brain drain Movement of people with technical and intellectual skills to other countries to seek better opportunities.

Brain drain

(a)