Describe one role of enzymes in the human body.

A person has a high fever of 105°F. State one effect that this high fever would likely have on enzyme activity.

Here, Eat This Vaccine

Munching on bacteria could be a good way to stimulate your immune system. Biologist Simon Cutting of the Royal Holloway University of London has transformed bacterial spores into an edible vaccine. He and his collaborators genetically altered the common bacterium Bacillus subtilis so that it produced harmless fragments of the toxin produced by tetanus. Then his team starved the bacterium so that it turned into a spore — a desiccated [dehydrated] packet tough enough to survive a trip through the digestive tract and into the bloodstream. Most of the mice that inhaled or ate the modified spores were then able to survive a lethal dose of tetanus.

“We selected tetanus because the immunology regarding this disease is well understood,” Cutting says. But engineered bacteria could be similarly tailored to train the immune system to fight anthrax, traveler’s diarrhea, and other illnesses. Edible vaccines would eliminate the need for needles and sterilizing equipment. Moreover, spores can withstand extreme heat and dryness, remaining viable [alive] for thousands of years. Cutting plans to start clinical trials in about two years. If the results measure up, spore vaccines could slash the cost of immunization programs, especially in poor countries where refrigeration is unreliable and transportation can be slow.

Describe one way the immune system could respond when it is exposed to the genetically altered Bacillus subtilis.

Here, Eat This Vaccine

Munching on bacteria could be a good way to stimulate your immune system. Biologist Simon Cutting of the Royal Holloway University of London has transformed bacterial spores into an edible vaccine. He and his collaborators genetically altered the common bacterium Bacillus subtilis so that it produced harmless fragments of the toxin produced by tetanus. Then his team starved the bacterium so that it turned into a spore — a desiccated [dehydrated] packet tough enough to survive a trip through the digestive tract and into the bloodstream. Most of the mice that inhaled or ate the modified spores were then able to survive a lethal dose of tetanus.

“We selected tetanus because the immunology regarding this disease is well understood,” Cutting says. But engineered bacteria could be similarly tailored to train the immune system to fight anthrax, traveler’s diarrhea, and other illnesses. Edible vaccines would eliminate the need for needles and sterilizing equipment. Moreover, spores can withstand extreme heat and dryness, remaining viable [alive] for thousands of years. Cutting plans to start clinical trials in about two years. If the results measure up, spore vaccines could slash the cost of immunization programs, especially in poor countries where refrigeration is unreliable and transportation can be slow.

Will individuals who have taken the vaccine be protected against future tetanus infections? Support your answer.

Here, Eat This Vaccine

Munching on bacteria could be a good way to stimulate your immune system. Biologist Simon Cutting of the Royal Holloway University of London has transformed bacterial spores into an edible vaccine. He and his collaborators genetically altered the common bacterium Bacillus subtilis so that it produced harmless fragments of the toxin produced by tetanus. Then his team starved the bacterium so that it turned into a spore — a desiccated [dehydrated] packet tough enough to survive a trip through the digestive tract and into the bloodstream. Most of the mice that inhaled or ate the modified spores were then able to survive a lethal dose of tetanus.

“We selected tetanus because the immunology regarding this disease is well understood,” Cutting says. But engineered bacteria could be similarly tailored to train the immune system to fight anthrax, traveler’s diarrhea, and other illnesses. Edible vaccines would eliminate the need for needles and sterilizing equipment. Moreover, spores can withstand extreme heat and dryness, remaining viable [alive] for thousands of years. Cutting plans to start clinical trials in about two years. If the results measure up, spore vaccines could slash the cost of immunization programs, especially in poor countries where refrigeration is unreliable and transportation can be slow.

State one advantage of using edible modified spores as vaccines.