In (a)   , the struggle for freedom was different.

South Africa had achieved self-rule from (a)   in 1910.

Self-rule, however, was limited to (a)   .

Whites made up less than (a)   percent of the population but controlled the government and the economy.

The (a)   was denied all political and economic rights in their own land.

The white-minority government passed (a)   that severely restricted the black majority.

In 1948, the government expanded the existing system of racial (a)   , and created the policy known as apartheid, or the separation of the races.

In 1948, the government expanded the existing system of racial segregation, and created the policy known as (a)   , or the separation of the races.

Under (a)   , all South Africans were registered by race: Black, White, Colored (people of mixed ancestry), Asian.

Supporters of apartheid claimed it would allow each race to develop its own (a)   .

In fact, the policy was designed to (a)  

over South Africa.

Under apartheid, blacks were treated like (a)   in their

own land.

By the early 1900s whites had seized rights to 87% of all land, including all of South Africa's huge (a)   wealth.

Whites held almost all the (a)   and prevented blacks from being promoted to better positions.

Although black workers were needed to make mines, factories, and other industries (a)   , they were paid less than whites for the same job.

Laws restricted where black people could live and banned (a)   between the races.

Among the most hated were the (a)   enacted in 1952, which required all blacks to carry pass books at all times, wherever they went.

Black schools received (a)   than white schools.

Low wages and inferior schooling condemned most blacks to (a)   .

(a)   to white rule began almost as soon as white rule itself was established.

The (a)   (ANC) emerged as the main party opposed to apartheid and led the struggle for majority rule.

As the government passed ever-harsher laws, the ANC organized larger and larger (a)   . (include the commas in your response)

In 1960, police gunned down 69 men, women, and children during a peaceful protest in (a)   , a black township.

The government then outlawed the (a)   and cracked down on other groups that opposed apartheid.

The (a)   was a turning point in the struggle against apartheid, leading some ANC activists to shift from nonviolent protest to armed struggle.

The Sharpeville massacre was a (a)   in the struggle against apartheid, leading some ANC activists to shift from nonviolent protest to armed struggle.

The Sharpeville massacre was a turning point in the struggle against (a)   , leading some ANC activists to shift from nonviolent protest to armed struggle.

The Sharpeville massacre was a turning point in the struggle against apartheid, leading some ANC activists to shift from (a)   .

Some leaders, like (a)   , went underground.

As an ANC leader, Mandela had first mobilized young South Africans to (a)   resist apartheid laws.

As government (a)   grew, Mandela joined ANC militants.

Mandela was arrested, tried, and, in 1964, condemned to life in prison for (a)   .

He stated at his trial: "I have cherished the ideal of a (a)   in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die."

He stated at his trial: "I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live (a)   and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die."

He stated at his trial: "I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with (a)   . It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die."

He stated at his trial: "I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which (a)   ."

Even in prison, he remained a powerful symbol of the struggle for freedom and resistance against (a)   .

In 1976, as a shocked world looked on, government forces killed almost 600 people in protests that started in the township of (a)   .

(a)   against the regime grew.

In the 1980s, demands for an (a)   and for Mandela's release began to have an effect.

Many countries imposed (a)   on South Africa, including the United States, which began to impose sanctions in 1986.

In 1984, black South African bishop (a)   won the Nobel Peace Prize for his nonviolent opposition to apartheid.

(a)   across South Africa and mounting international pressure led to change.

In a surprise move in 1990, the newly chosen South African president (a)   lifted the ban on the ANC and freed Mandela and other political prisoners.

In 1993, Mandela and de Klerk jointly won the (a)   for their efforts in ending apartheid.

Voters chose (a)   as president in South Africa's first non-racial election.

Mandela worked to heal the country's wounds. "Let us build together," he declared. He welcomed old foes into his government, including (a)   who had supported apartheid.

Since (a)   , South Africa has faced huge challenges. With majority rule, black South Africans expected a better life.

Although South Africa was a rich, (a)   country, it had limited resources to spend on housing, education, and other programs.

The income and education gap between blacks and whites remained large. Poverty and unemployment were high among blacks. The AIDS (a)   hit South Africa severely.

Today, South Africa has one of Africa's (a)   economies.

Yet in recent years, the country has suffered from (a)   as political and business leaders have enriched themselves through government contracts.

This corruption has hurt (a)   and shaken

faith in government.

African economies are diverse. Each country has a different mix of economic resources. A few have rich (a)   .

Others have (a)   that the world wants, such as cotton, cocoa, tea, and coffee. Some countries have great mineral resources, such as diamonds or oil.

After achieving (a)   , each African nation had to make choices as to how to best develop their resources.

After independence, many African nations were attracted to (a)   , an economic system in which major economic decisions are made by the government rather than by individuals, companies, and the market.

They hoped to industrialize rapidly and looked to the models of the (a)   , which had made rapid gains in a short period.

Some developed their own form of "African socialism," based on traditions of (a)   .

These early models of development did not succeed. By the 1980s, most African nations moved toward (a)   , which international lenders required before making badly needed loans.

For decades, African governments and (a)   worked to boost production of cash crops for export, such as coffee, cocoa, rubber, and cotton.

However, the drive to develop cash crops for badly needed income hurt many countries. Land used to grow cash crops could not be used to produce (a)   .

Faced with growing populations, some countries had to buy costly imported food. To prevent unrest among the (a)   , many governments then kept food prices artificially low, which was costly.

Today, the demand for both (a)   remains high.

Governments want to produce enough food for their people and have encouraged small farmers to adopt new practices to increase food output. At same time, they focus on competing in (a)   for cash crops.

In the past (a)   years, economic activity across Africa has increased with some nations experiencing strong economic gains.

Progress is due to many causes, including the end of some long running local conflicts. Among the fastest growing economies are Ethiopia, (a)   , Ghana, and Côte d'Ivoire.

Government policies to diversify their economies and promote (a)   growth have helped drive more growth.

Trade has also stimulated economic growth. African nations have expanded trade and other economic ties with industrial giants such as (a)   .

Many African nations have turned to China for investments in (a)   , or underlying transportation and other systems.

While economic growth is solid, it remains uneven. Some countries have suffered setbacks due to price swings for export crops and (a)   .

Other countries struggle with huge debt, high unemployment, political instability, and corruption. Natural disasters, such as Cyclone Idai, which devastated (a)   , also hurt economic growth.

About a third of African countries have made progress toward reducing poverty and inequality. To promote further growth, many nations today (a)   and skills development, especially in poor and rural areas. The continent's human capital is one of its major resources.

African nations have benefited from regional and

international cooperation. In 1963, African nations

set up the Organization of African Unity, which later

became the (a)   -nation African Union (AU). Among its

chief goals are encouraging cooperation, promoting

economic growth, and seeking peaceful settlements

of disputes. Through the African Development Bank,

it channels investment capital from foreign sources

into development programs.

The UN has also promoted development. It has worked with individual countries and regional organizations like the AU to support (a)   government, promote economic growth, and protect the environment. UN programs have introduced drought resistant farming methods to Ethiopia and other regions of limited rainfall. Elsewhere, they have helped poor women open small businesses. which helps families out of poverty.

Like developing countries worldwide, African nations experienced rapid (a)   as millions of people moved from rural areas to cities.

City life affected family life. While respect for elders and ancestors remain important values, modernization has created strains between traditional and modern family life. In cities—and even some rural areas—smaller households have replaced the larger (a)   . Although better health care led to a population boom across Africa, the recent trend has been toward families having fewer children.

In Africa, as elsewhere, development and urbanization have contributed to environmental issues. Some nations, especially in the Congo Basin region, have vast forests. But millions of acres of forest are cleared each year.

(a)   , or the clearing of forests for wood and farming, has led to soil erosion and other harmful effects.

Deforestation endangers many species of plants and animals. Other animal habitats face destruction through (a)   and development. The possible loss of these endangered species poses a threat to the tourism industries of some countries.

Oil and mining industries create great profits for their owners but also cause widespread pollution. (a)   is another serious threat, caused by urban and industrial wastes as well as fertilizers, pesticides, and other products used in large scale farming.

In Kenya, Wangari Maathai challenged government inaction by starting the (a)   Movement.

Maathai and many other environmentalists want to promote (a)   that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Droughts are common in parts of Africa. The Sahel, a semi-desert region south of the Sahara, has suffered frequent droughts, which has led to desertification, or (a)   .

In the Sahel, overgrazing, farming, and deforestation has led to destruction of plant life and loss of topsoil. During droughts, herds have died off, crops withered, and many people have faced (a)   . International relief efforts have eased the famines, but wars that rage in several countries in the Sahel added to the suffering.

Today, an ambitious project called the Great Green Wall is underway to reverse desertification in some (a)   African countries by reforesting the Sahel.

A wall of trees is set to reach from Senegal in the west to Dijbouti in the east. Senegal has planted more than 12 million, mostly acacia, trees. The trees can survive in a dry climate and protect the soil from erosion. Acacia trees also produce gum arabic, a substance used in some (a)   and other products, which can be exported for profit.

Higher temperatures and shifts in weather patterns cause floods or droughts, which have negative impacts on African nations. In some regions, these changes have reduced the amount of land that can be farmed. They also affect the outbreak and distribution of infectious diseases such as (a)   .

Still, the World Health Organization estimates that a child in Africa dies of malaria every (a)   seconds.

In South Africa and Botswana, up to (a)   of adults were infected with HIV. More than 11 million children in Africa have been orphaned by the AIDS epidemic.

The (a)   hurt the economies of some African countries.

Countries have worked to make (a)   drugs available to more people. These drugs can slow the progress of the virus and let people infected with HIV/AIDS live relatively normal lives.

In South Sudan, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and elsewhere, local strongmen, or (a)   , gained power.

Some warlords consider themselves freedom fighters and battle their rivals in complicated local ethnic or religious conflicts. To fund their militias, they often work alongside criminal groups. They also (a)   to train as child soldiers in their militias. Conflicts between warlords and governments pose a major obstacle to development.

In recent years, terrorist groups, many linked to the (a)   ISIS or Al Qaeda, have had a devastating impact in many countries, especially in the Sahel region.

In Nigeria and nearby countries, the radical Islamist group Boko Haram began by opposing non-lslamic education, but by 2015 had turned to terrorism. (a)   terrorists have attacked villagers, kidnapped girls from schools, and sent suicide bombers into cities.

Both Boko Haram and Al Shabab want to establish a (a)   , or Islamic law. African nations, along with the UN, the United States, and other governments, have worked to develop counterterrorism strategies to deal with these threats.