Is the substance or essence of a speech or text.

Here you may have to read encyclopedias, textbooks, or specialist papers to understand the subject and the concepts.

Is required, in any challenging text, of the word, both out of and in context.

The average text for translation tends to be for an educated, middle-class readership in an informal, not colloquial style.

The most common variety of marked error in register among student translators tends to be colloquial and intimate.

__________ represents the SL writer’s attitude to the subject matter.

When you search for the intention of the text you CAN isolate this from understanding.

According to Nida, there are four types of text, which are:

This type of text has a dynamic sequence of events, where the emphasis is on the verbs

This type of text which is static, with emphasis on linking verbs, adjectives, adjectival nouns.

This type of text involves a treatment of ideas, with emphasis on abstract nouns

This type of text has emphasis on colloquialisms and phaticisms.

Speech used for social or emotive purposes rather than for communicating information.

A local or regional dialect expression.

The three typical reader types are perhaps:

The _ of the writing has to be judged in relation to the author’s intention and/or the requirements of the subject-matter.

If the text is _ the manner is as important as the matter, the right words are in the right places, with a minimum of redundancy

A _ text will be cluttered with stereotyped phrases, recently fashionable general words and probably poorly structured.

Is the literal meaning, that is, the definition you find in a dictionary.

Is the literal meaning of a word, a gesture, or any mark, without emotion.

Are the feelings and ideas associated with a word.

Is the implied subtext of words rather than their literal meaning. It is the intention, the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word.

Untranslatable words are the ones that have no ready one-to-one equivalent in the TL.

Here you should note the cultural aspect of the SL text; you should underline all neologisms, metaphors, cultural words and institutional terms peculiar to SI, or third language, proper names, technical terms and untranslatable words.

This type of text is often fiction in which the values are used to describe and/or to explain human behaviour.

Is nonfiction in which the author seeks to explain or inform. The information can be verified as true.

This types of text are used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of a person, place, object, or event.

These texts depart from the assumption that the receiver’s beliefs must be changed.

This is tehe level of language, where we begin and which we continually (but not continuously) go back.

At this level you intuitively and automatically make certain conversions: you transpose the SL grammar (clauses and groups) into their ready TL equivalents and you immediately appropriate them in the context of the sentence.

This is the level of the literal translation of the source language into the target language.

Is the level of objects and events, real or imaginary, which we progressively have to visualize and build up

This level deals with content, the message or semantics of a text. It is built up out of, based on, the clarification of all linguistic difficulties and, where appropriate, supplementary information

This level is more general, and grammatical. This level encompasses both comprehension and reproduction.

The cohesive level is a more generalized level that links the first and the second follows the structure and the mood of the text.

The cohesive level is a regulator, it secures coherence, it adjusts emphasis.

The level of common language appropriate to the writer or the speaker in a certain situation.

____ is marked by interference, primarily from the SL text, possibly from a third language known to the translator including his own, if it is not the target language.

The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely.

This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated.

The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.

It attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It transfers cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical abnormality (deviation from SL normal) in the translation.

It must take more account of the aesthetic value. It does not rely on cultural equivalence and make very small concessions to the readership.

It attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.

Only these two types fulfill the two main aims of translation, which are first, accuracy, and second, economy.

It reproduces the message of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.

It reproduces the matter without the manner, of the content without the form of the original a so-called intralingual translation, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original.

This is the freest form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies and poetry)

Service translation is the translation from one’s language of habitual use into another language.

The prose translation of poems and poetic drama initiated by E. V. Rieu for Penguin Books.

This conveys all the information in a non-hierarchy text, sometimes rearranged in a more logical form, sometimes partially summarized, and not in the form of a paraphrase.

This reproduces the information in a SL text converting the SL grammar to its normal TL transpositions, normally reducing any figurative to literal language.

Academic translation is practiced in some British universities, reduces an original SL text to an elegant idiomatic educated TL

Equivalence that focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content.

Is based on the principle of equivalent effect, i.e that the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL language.

According to Buhler, the three main functions of language are:

Jakobson adopted Buhler’s functional theory of language and added three new language functions: aesthetic, phatic and metalingual.

The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance.

The core of this function of language is external situations, the facts of a topic, reality outside language.

The core of this function of language is the readership, the addressee.

It calls upon the readership to act, think or feel, in fact, to react in the way intended by the text.

This is language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors.

This function of language is used for maintaining friendly contact with the addressee rather than for imparting foreign information.

Indicates a language’s ability to explain, name, and criticize its own features. Focus on language itself.