Specialized courts first created in the late nineteenth century to apply juvenile justice laws in the care of dependent and delinquent children.

A legal doctrine that, literally translated, means "incapable of doing harm" and refers to the English common-law presumption that children between 7 and 14 years of age could not be prosecuted for committing criminal offences, unless this presumption was contested by the Crown.

The dismantling of a distinct system of criminal justice for youth and the re-emerging with systems of justice for adults.

A term often used today as a substitute for juvenile courts. Critical criminologists argue that it signifies a shift toward treating young offenders more like adult offenders.

A term coined by Bryan Hogveen (2005) to describe the discursive construction of some young offenders as "troubled" and therefore needing intervention in the hope they can be rehabilitated.

A term coined by Bryan Hogveen (2005) to describe the discursive construction of some young offenders as "troublesome" and therefore requiring punishment in order to make them accountable for their criminal acts.

The lgal doctrine that the state has a duty to assume the role of a substitute parent in the case of a delinquent or dependent children who do not have parents who are able to adequately control or care for them.

The argument that in recent decades the criminal justice systems of many Western countries have become more punishment oriented, with longer prison sentences and higher rates of incarceration.

The general view that individuals who are not adults should not be held fully responsible for their criminal behaviour.

A term popularized by child development expert G. Stanley Hall to refer to a stage of life during which a person progresses both, biologically and emotionally, from being a child to being an adult.

Who was the most influential historian to youth crime and justice?

The cyclical theory of justice reform...

-Canada’s first juvenile delinquency legislation, in force 1908–1984, which allowed provinces to set their own maximum ages of jurisdiction.

Maximum ages ranged from 15 to 17 and could be different for males and females

Offences that a youth could be found guilty of simply because he or she was underage (e.g., drinking, truancy)

Two-pronged system that allows for diversion of first-time and less serious offenders out of the system, while allowing for more punitive forms of punishment for more serious offenders.