___ the strongest of all the types of bonds. This results when two atoms attain stable electron numbers in their outermost shells by equal or unequal sharing one or more pairs of electrons between them, such as the bonds between C and H in methane.

__ occur between atoms with a very high difference in electronegativity. This results in a complete transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another that has a higher electronegativity. For example, in table salt (NaCl), the sodium acquires a positive change (Na+ ) by donating its electron to chlorine, which now acquires a negative charge (Cl- ).

• Science begins with observations, therefore, much of science is purely _____.

___ : (oxidation and reduction reactions) are chemical processes that transfer electrons (and their energy) from a reducing agent to an oxidizing agent. An atom, ion, or molecule loses electrons during oxidation (and their energy). An atom, ion, or molecule gains electrons during reduction (and their energy). Electron transfer or shuttling is extremely common within cells

___ or fats are predominately hydrocarbon chains that are used as energy storage and insulation. Lipids are hydrophobic in nature. Modified lipids form phospholipids, steroid hormones, cholesterol and some vitamins. Cell membranes are composed of lipid bilayers, which separate the aqueous inside of the cell (the cytoplasm) from the aqueous outside of the cell (the extra cellular environment).

___ Include monosaccharides, disaccharides, trisaccharide or polysaccharides. A monosaccharide is composed of carbons flanked by H atoms or -OH groups, is hydrophilic and can exist in a linear or cyclic structure. Monosaccharides are linked together by glycosidic bonds to form polysaccharides including starch, chitin and cellulose. Carbohydrates are used as an energy source, as a source for carbon, and can be attached to other macromolecules, including lipids and proteins, to serve as recognition markers for the cell. Proteins covalently attached to carbohydrates (glycans) are called glycoproteins: We have different blood groups due to the variation in the glycans that are attached to cell surface protein on mature red blood cells

___ [Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)/Ribonucleic acids (RNA)] are biological macromolecules specialized for the storage, transfer and use of genetic information. There are 5 nitrogenous bases: Adenosine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil. The A and G are purine bases whereas the T, C and U are pyrimidine bases. To synthesize nucleic acids, cells need nucleosides triphosphate: ATP, UTP, GTP and CTP for RNA, while DNA precursors are dTTP, dATP, dGTP, dCTP

__ are linear chains of amino acids of which there are 20 distinct types. The order of the amino acids in the chain dictates the shape and the function of the protein in the cell. There are 4 levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. The polypeptide chain of a protein is always WRITTEN in an Amino —> Carboxyl direction and – as we shall see later it is also biosynthesized in an Amino—> Carboxyl direction.

__  (1) cells are the basic living units of organization and function in all organisms and (2) all cells come from other cells. It explains that the ancestry of all the cells alive today can be traced back to ancient times. Evidence that all living cells have evolved from a common ancestor is supported by the basic similarities in their structures and in their molecular composition

Bacteria and archaea are ___.

A membrane-bound compartment that separates the DNA, the hereditary material from the cytoplasm. Pores across the nuclear membrane help control the passage of many substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

DNA together with proteins forms chromatin.

A membrane bound region where polypeptide chains are processed (Rough ER, studded with ribosomes) and lipids are assembled (Smooth ER, is not studded with ribosomes)

The power- house of energy and the site of aerobic respiration and oxidative phosphorylation. Unlike any other organelle the mitochondria have their own DNA, ribosomes and proteins and is said to have originated per the endosymbiotic theory. Endosymbiosis explains the origin of mitochondria and their double membranes. This concept postulates that mitochondria are the result of years of evolution initiated by the endocytosis of bacteria, which were not digested; they became symbiotic instead.

Localized in the nucleus. It is a site where the ribosomes and tRNA are synthesized.

Small, Non-membranous organelles that are not surrounded by membrane and are involved in the synthesis of proteins and are comprised of RNA and proteins.

A dynamic network of fibers that maintain cell shape and motility and play important roles in intracellular transport and cell division.

Microtubules are hollow cylinders assembled from subunits of the protein tubulin. In cells that are not dividing, the minus ends of microtubules are anchored in microtubuleorganizing centers (MTOCs). The main MTOC of animal cells is the centrosome, which usually contains two centrioles. Each centriole has a 9 x 3 arrangement of microtubules.

Microfilaments, or actin filaments, formed from subunits of the protein actin, are important in cell movement. Intermediate filaments strengthen the cytoskeleton and stabilize cell shape.

They contain enzymes that are involved in digesting cell’s own toxic material and have acidic pH.

Tubular structures in cell where the newly translated proteins are modified and sorted.

Store materials, water, and wastes. They maintain hydrostatic pressure in plant cells. The membrane is called tonoplast.

All are polymers EXCEPT:

Lipids are made up of:

__ are plastids that carry out photosynthesis. The inner membrane of the chloroplast encloses a fluidfilled space, the stroma. Grana, stacks of interconnected disclike membranous sacs called thylakoids, are suspended in the stroma. During photosynthesis, chlorophyll, the green pigment found in the thylakoid membranes, traps light energy. This energy is converted to chemical energy in ATP and used to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water.

Cell wall are only in eukaryotes.

• _____ uses general principles to make specific predictions.

________ uses specific observations to develop general conclusions.

What is the correct order of the scientific method?

Homologous:

How are carbohydrates different from other biological molecules?

Which macromolecule is composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus

Analogous:

True or False: Structure determines function.

Atomic number =

An element is:

Atomic mass =

Cation has a net ___ charge.

Anion has a net ___ charge.

Isotopes are atoms of a single element that possess different numbers of ____ .

Electrons ___ the nucleus have more energy.

Covalent bonds form when ______.

Octet rule:

Acid:

Base:

What provides major cellular fuel?

Amino acids are linked by ____

All polymers are made up of...

__ are the monomer for nucleic acids.

Loss of protein structure is called __.

__ are the monomers of proteins.

Membrane structure consists of:

All of these are components of the cellular membrane EXCEPT:

T or F: Individual phospholipids & unanchored proteins can move through the membrane.

Phospholipid structure consists of:

T or F: Diverse functions arise from the diverse structures of membrane proteins.

• Extensive nonpolar regions within a transmembrane protein can create a __ through the membrane.

Passive transport:

__ allow the passage on ions.

Facilitated diffusion:

T or F: Carrier proteins help transport both ions and other solutes, such as some sugars and amino acids.