is the study of the origin, evolution and fate of

the universe

Space and time spontaneously expanded from an infinitely

tiny and dense point called a singularity around 14 billion

years ago, and has been expanding ever since.

As planets began to form, they grow in mass by accreting

planetesimals. Since force of gravity is proportional to

mass, the largest planetesimals are accreted first.

Which among the statements are TRUE.

Contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the

planet.

Contains all the planet’s living things, Includes all the microorganisms, plants, and animals of

earth. Living things from ecological communities (biomes) based

on the physical surroundings of an area.

Contains all of the hard, solid land of the planet’s crust

(surface) up to the upper mantle.

Contains the blanket of gases not only contains the air that we

breathe but also protects us from the blasts of heat and

radiation emanating from the sun.

Layer closest to earth’s surface, Contains half of earth’s atmosphere, Clouds are found here

Starts above the troposphere and ends about 50km above

the ground, Ozone is abundant here, and This is where jet aircraft

and weather balloons fly

Starts at 50km and extends to 85km high, Meteors burn up in this layer

Extends from about 90km – 500km/1,000km

Air density is so low that most of this layer is what is

normally thought of as outer space (Karman Line, 100km) Auroras occur here

The highest layer, beyond the 500km - 1,000km boundary

Is extremely thin and is where the atmosphere merges into

outer space.

The top of the mesosphere, is the

coldest part of earth’s atmosphere.

crust is where you and I live on and is by far the thinnest

of the layers of earth.

By far the largest layer, making up 84% of earth’s volume.

is the very hot, very dense center of our planet. Formed during the “iron catastrophe”

is fluid enough and low enough

in viscosity that it may spins faster than the entire earth.

Creates the electrical currents that drive the magnetic field.

Primarily iron and nickel, Enriched in unusual heavy elements, The pressures become high enough that despite very high temperatures, it is solid.

Crust-mantle boundary

Mantle-core boundary

describes the movement of the mantle

as it transfers heat from the white-hot core to the brittle

lithosphere.

Heat from when the planet formed, which has not

yet been lost. Frictional heating, caused by denser core material

sinking to the center of the planet; Heat from the decay of radioactive elements.

When magma is ejected by a volcano or other vent, the

material is called ____.

Magma that has cooled into a solid is called an _____ rock.

Involves the upward movement of earth’s mostly solid

mantle. This hot material rises to an area of lower pressure through

the process of convection. melts mantle

rock to form magma.

Magma can also be created when hot, liquid rock exits into

earth’s cold crust and is able to melt the surrounding rocks in

earth’s crust (the “ice cream”) into magma

is liquid rock that forms under earth’s surface. Magma from under the

surface is slowly pushed up from deep within the earth into

any cracks or spaces it can find, sometimes pushing existing rock out of the way.

Lava cools to form volcanic rock as well as volcanic glass. Magma can also

extrude into earth’s atmosphere as part of a violent volcanic explostion.

is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with

a definite chemical composition and an ordered internal

structure.

Naturally occurring material from which a mineral or

minerals of economic value can be extracted. Extracted from the earth through mining; they are then refined (often vie smelting) to extract the valuable element,

or elements.

Process of ore formation

Occurrence of a particular ore type that has been tested and

known to be economically profitable to mine.

Valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through the

magmatic processes such as crystal fractionation,

partial melting, and crystal settling.

The concentration of valuable

substances by hot aqueous (water-rich

fluids flowing through fractures and pore

spaces in rocks.

Form evaporate deposits from

precipitation of saltwater and lake water.

Natural concentration of heavy materials

caused by effect of gravity on moving

particles.

Result from accumulation of valuable

materials through chemical weathering

process.

Reviewing of data working on gov’t requirements,

budget and organization proposals.

Determines and validates the accuracy of all data

and information collected from the different

stages.

Activities involve regional surface

investigation and interpretation.

The objective of finding and delineating

targets or mineralized zones

Assess market profitability by Extensive resources,

geotechnical, and engineering drilling; Metallurgical testing; and,

Environmental and societal costassessment

Materials extracted or “mined” are rocks composed of both

ore and waste material (part of the rock which contains very

little or no element or mineral of economic value)

Here we can find the 2 Types of Mining

o Open Pit Mining

o Underground mining

Is a naturally occurring coherent aggregate of minerals

such as natural glass or organic matter. Found in the lithosphere

Formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or

lava. Also, can form at much higher temperature compared

to other types of rocks.

Are the products of the lithification of particles produced by

the weathering of other preexisting rocks. can have parent material derived from

older igneous, metamorphic, and even sedimentary rocks. They may also

comprised of mineral fragments and organic material, or some cases.

Form when preexisting or parent rocks (whether igneous,

sedimentary, or even metamorphic) are altered by heat,

pressure and chemical activity of fluids. This process is called

metamorphism, meaning change in form.

Process in which rocks change in shape, size, location, tilt or break due to squeezing,

stretching, or shearing.

Tectonic forces operating inside the Earth causes rocks to undergo deformation.

is the resulting change in rocks due to the different types of stress.

are the fractures in bedrock (Brittle Rocks) along

which movement has occurred.

Different kinds of strain can cause rock to stretch, shorten, and even change temporarily

called an _____.

is a fracture along which no movement has taken place, usually caused by

tensional forces.

If the forces act uniformly from all directions, also known as

pressure

when the weight of the overlying rocks exerts pressure

if the force is not equal from all directions

dominant force is directed away from each other.

dominant force is directed towards each other.

two dominant force are directed towards each

other but not along the same axis

A stage of Deformation that is characterized by

reversible strain

A stage of Deformation that is irreversable

A stage of Deformation that once it reaches

the elastic limit, it would result to

permanent deformation or fracture.

movement is parallel to the dip of the fault

plane

the hanging-wall block has moved down

(Tensional stress)

the hanging-wall block has moved up

(Compressional stress)

the movement is predominantly

horizontal and parallel (Shear stress)

the movement is both vertical and horizontal

a special case of a reverse

fault where the dip of the fault is less

than 45o

Fault: if the block on

the other side has moved to the left, we say

that the fault is a ____.

Fault: if the block on

the other side has moved to the RIGHT, we say

that the fault is a ____.

result from compressional stresses or shear stresses acting over considerable time.

drives plate tectonics. Hot material rises at mid-

ocean ridges and sinks at deep sea trenches, which keeps the plates

moving along the Earth’s surface.

arch-like shape, upward folds.

trough-like shape, downward folds.

are the simplest types of folds, gently dipping bends in horizontal rock layers.

explained that continents had once been joined

together and have slowly drifted apart by some unknown

mechanism

explained that continents had once been joined

together and have slowly drifted apart by some unknown

mechanism

It is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges,

where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic

activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.

Evidences This means that the sediments are gradually

becoming thicker and older, with increasing distance

away from the center of the ridges.

Type of plate boundaries that Collide/Move toward.

Type of plate boundaries that Move away from/Move apart.

Type of plate boundaries that Slide past/Slip away.

Where oceanic crust meets ocean

crust. When the interacting plates are

both oceanic, the denser plate

sinks beneath the lighter one

and heads back to the mantle.

Where oceanic crust meets continental crust Oceanic

-continental convergence occurs when

leading edge of one plate is composed of continental rocks

(granitic) and the other is oceanic (basaltic).

Where continental crust meets

continental crust. When colliding plates are both

continental, neither subducts because continental crust are

so buoyant. Instead of subduction zone, what forms

is a collision mountain belt.

Chain of volcanoes are also known as _____.

is formed from the

subduction of an oceanic plate beneath another

oceanic plate.

is formed from the subduction of oceanic plate beneath continental plate.

in the South Pacific Ocean, is formed as the mighty

Pacific plate subducts beneath the smaller, less-dense Philippine plate.