“_____________ is a group of people who work interdependently towards some purpose”

•___________ = Scientist & Practitioner

Development/discovery of scientific psychological principles at work

Application of the knowledge to improve work behavior, working environment and psychological conditions of workers.

•___________ = Organization & Employee

Efficiency/productivity of organizations

Health/well-being of employees

INFLUENCES ON I/O PSYCHOLOGY

It addresses issues such as Recruitment, Selection, Training, Performance Appraisal, Promotion, Transfer, and termination.

The approach assumes that people are consistently different in their attributes and work behaviour and that information about these differences can be used to predict, maintain, and increase work performance and satisfaction.

It addresses the emotional and motivational side of work. It includes topics such as attitudes, fairness, motivation, stress, leadership, teams and the broader aspects of organizational and work design.

Human Engineering approach comprises of environmental aspects such as tools, work space, information display, shift work, work pace, machine control, and other safety.

( Developing test, Validating test, Analysing job content, Identifying Management Potential)

•(Identifying Training and Development Needs, Evaluating Training Effectiveness, Career Planning)

•(Analysing Organization Structure, Maximizing satisfaction and Effectiveness of employees, Facilitating Organizational Change)

•(Developing Measures of Performance, Introducing performance evaluation systems)

•(Identify factors associated with Job Satisfaction, Reducing Stress in the work place, Redesign Jobs)

•(Designing work environment, Optimizing person- machine effectiveness, Making work place safer)

Work in ______________ e.g. in universities and colleges.

Major activities of those in research are;

Teaching, conducting research, writing research papers, develop courses, supervise students, provide consulting services to organizations.

Work in _______________ e.g. for consulting firms, government and military.

Major activities of those in practice are;

Job analysis, determine solutions for organizational problems, conduct employee surveys, design performance appraisal system, design training programs, develop psychological tests, develop organizational change.

¢  - Established the first laboratory dedicated to psychology at the University of Leipzig in 1879.

¢  - Often regarded as the father of psychology, separating psychology from philosophy.

¢  - Influenced many prominent psychologists, including James Cattell and Hugo Munsterberg.

¢  - Known for pioneering applied psychology, including industrial-organizational, clinical, and forensic psychology.

¢  - Emphasized personnel selection based on personalities and mental abilities suited to specific work.

¢  - Authored "Psychology and Industrial Efficiency" (1913) and the first I-O psychology textbook.

¢  - Contributed to psychology through research on intelligence, quantitative methods, and establishing psychology as a science.

¢  - Published the first psychology dissertation by an American.

¢  - Instrumental in establishing major psychology journals and organizations.

¢  - Studied under Wilhelm Wundt, focusing on applied psychology and advertising.

¢  - Revolutionized personnel selection methods during WWI, emphasizing standardized testing.

¢  - Founded a company applying psychological principles to improve organizational efficiency.

¢    Introduced "Scientific Management" principles in 1911, emphasizing job analysis, employee selection, training, and productivity rewards.

¢    Pioneered time motion studies to optimize work processes.

¢    Conducted the Hawthorne Studies, investigating how social and psychological factors influence productivity in the workplace.

¢    Created the WWI Army Alpha and Beta intelligence tests for war recruits.

¢    Criticized for cultural bias, particularly in the Alpha test, due to language and unfamiliarity with testing materials.

¢    Served as an early applied psychologist, consulting for Coca Cola on various topics related to consumer behavior and advertising effectiveness.

¢    Conducted the Hawthorne Studies, investigating how social and psychological factors influence productivity in the workplace.

Five alternate forms of the verbal test,

A nonverbal test for illiterate and non-English speaking recruits

An individual verbal examination for those who failed Beta

Administered on approximately two million men.

“A concentrated effort by managers and their advisors to become more sensitive to the needs of employees or to treat them in a more humanistic manner”

________________ is the process of gathering and analysing information about the content and the human requirements of jobs, as well as, the context in which jobs are performed. This process is used to determine placement of jobs.

•Focuses on the tasks that are performed on the job

•Focuses on the personal characteristics needed for the job

•___________ job analysis provides information about the nature of tasks done on the job

•Some methods describe the tasks themselves (broad), while other methods provide information about characteristics of the tasks (narrow)

•Description tells what people do on a particular job. Characteristics of the task is used to compare nature of work across different kinds of jobs

•Tasks can be divided into hierarchy in which higher level descriptions are broken down into smaller and smaller pieces of job

Who provides the job analysis information…

OJob Analyst: Job analysts work in the human resources (HR) department of a company or organisation, conducting in-depth research about occupations and job descriptions.

OTrained Observer: Trained observers are involved in Observation interview which is defined as the process of observing certain employees in a firm while they are performing their respective jobs and tasks given at a certain time, these observations are then utilized to gather data regarding specific jobs and tasks.

OSubject Matter Experts: A subject-matter expert is a person who is an authority in a particular area or topic. The term is used when developing materials about a topic, and expertise on the topic is needed by the personnel developing the material.

OJob Incumbent: The term incumbent refers to an individual who currently holds a set of responsibilities within a specific office as part of a corporation or within a branch of the government. As the incumbent, this person has an obligation to the position or office they hold.

OSupervisor: a person who supervises a person or an activity.

OWriting Job Description

OEmployee Recruitment & Selection

OTraining

OMan-power Planning & Equal Employment Opportunity

OPerformance Appraisal

OJob Classification

OJob Evaluation

OCompensation

OCompliance with Legal Guidelines

OOrganizational Analysis (Org Restructure)

OJob Description

O

OJob Specification

O

OJob Evaluation: A job evaluation is a systematic way of determining the value/worth of a job in relation to other jobs in an organization. It tries to make a systematic comparison between jobs to assess their relative worth for the purpose of establishing a rational pay structure.

O

OPerformance Criteria: Quality of work (accuracy, thoroughness, competence) Quantity of work (productivity level, time management, ability to meet deadlines) Job knowledge (skills and understanding of the work) Working relationships (ability to work with others, communication skills) Achievements.

OJob Description

O

OJob Specification

O

OJob Evaluation: A job evaluation is a systematic way of determining the value/worth of a job in relation to other jobs in an organization. It tries to make a systematic comparison between jobs to assess their relative worth for the purpose of establishing a rational pay structure.

O

OPerformance Criteria: Quality of work (accuracy, thoroughness, competence) Quantity of work (productivity level, time management, ability to meet deadlines) Job knowledge (skills and understanding of the work) Working relationships (ability to work with others, communication skills) Achievements.

Methods/ SOURCES of Job Analysis

•The Job Simplification means breaking the job into relatively easier sub-parts with the intention to enhance the individual's productivity by minimizing the physical and mental efforts required to perform a complex job. Job rotation is a technique used by some employers to rotate their employees' assigned jobs throughout their employment.

•Job enlargement and job enrichment are both used as techniques for employee motivation and satisfaction. However, they differ a lot from each other. The critical difference is job enlargement is a horizontal expansion of duties and tasks across the same organizational level, whereas job enrichment is the vertical expansion of the roles, responsibilities, authority and activities along with the different hierarchical levels.

are an essential part of hiring and managing

your employees. These written summaries ensure your

applicants and employees understand their roles and what

they need to do to be held accountable.

____________ also:

OHelp attract the right job candidates

ODescribe the major areas of an employee’s job or position

OServe as a major basis for outlining performance expectations, job training, job evaluation and career advancement

OProvide a reference point for compensation decisions and unfair hiring practices

A ________________-- is a grouping that encompasses positions with the same or similar values in order to assign compensation rates and structures. The range of pay for every job within a ______________ is traditionally the same, with a minimum and maximum rate being established.

OSalary bands (or pay ranges) are how you define the target pay for employees within job grades. For each Level, a company should decide the low-end and high-end of the pay that level will command. Salary bands help when making offers, retaining employees, and planning for future growth.

•The ____________ means breaking the job into relatively easier sub-parts with the intention to enhance the individual's productivity by minimizing the physical and mental efforts required to perform a complex job.

____________ is a technique used by some employers to rotate their employees' assigned jobs throughout their employment.

_____________ is a horizontal expansion of duties and tasks across the same organizational level.

_____________ is the vertical expansion of the roles, responsibilities, authority and activities along with the different hierarchical levels.

_______________________ It’s a declaration of a brand’s unique place in the market. A brand positioning statement is important because it directs your communication, digital marketing, advertising, strategic plans, and even brand development.

_______________________ is looking within your own company to determine the best methods for conducting business. These practices become the standard for continued improvement used by employees for more effective ways of conducting operations, ultimately maximizing the results and performance of the company.

__________________ is where an organization compares its performance with other, comparable organizations. Many government organizations want to know what other comparable jurisdictions are doing, because they want to see their performance in context.

______________ are businesses whose personnel numbers fall below certain limits. In any given national economy, SMEs sometimes outnumber large companies by a wide margin and also employ many more people.

_____________ is an acronym for Knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics. They are extremely helpful for recruiting personnel. KSAOs describe the skills and attributes required for a particular position in an organization.

_____________ works in the human resources (HR) department of a company or organization, conducting in-depth research about occupations and job descriptions.

_______________ is involved in an Observation interview which is defined as the process of observing certain employees in a firm while they are performing their respective jobs and tasks given at a certain time, these observations are then utilized to gather data regarding specific jobs and tasks.

A _______________ is a person who is an authority in a particular area or topic. The term is used when developing materials about a topic, and expertise on the topic is needed by the personnel developing the material.

The term incumbent refers to an individual who currently holds a set of responsibilities within a specific office as part of a corporation or within a branch of the government. As the incumbent, this person has an obligation to the position or office they hold.

A person who supervises a person or an activity.

A ______________ is a systematic way of determining the value/worth of a job in relation to other jobs in an organization. It tries to make a systematic comparison between jobs to assess their relative worth for the purpose of establishing a rational pay structure.

Quality of work (accuracy, thoroughness, competence)

Quantity of work (productivity level, time management, ability to meet deadlines) 

Job knowledge (skills and understanding of the work)

Working relationships (ability to work with others, communication skills)

Achievements.

•Developed to match job requirements to worker characteristics

•This method allows for the simultaneous assessment of job requirements and person’s KSAOs.

•It covers over 400 features of job that can be translated into skills requirements.

•Five components of job features in JCI are:

•tools and equipment

•perceptual and physical requirements

•mathematical requirements

•communication requirements

•decision making and responsibility

- Functional job analysis (FJA) is a qualitative method for collecting job-specific data on employee behavior and actions.

- Used by the US Department of Labor for the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT).

- Rates job incumbents' involvement in data, people, and things functions, with lower scores indicating higher complexity.

- Procedure involves generating task statements and rating them based on perceived involvement and complexity.

- Functions: Data (finance, etc.), People (coworkers, clients), Things (animate, inanimate objects).

- Contains 194 items organized into six dimensions: information input, mental processes, work input, relations with others, job context, and other job-related variables.

- Determines if a job involves interviewing and how it's conducted.

- Inexpensive and time-efficient.

- One of the most standardized job analysis methods.

- Each item is worker-oriented and rated on six scales.

- Completed by a trained job analyst through interviews with subject matter experts (SMEs).

- Produces a profile of task elements and KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics).

- Used for various purposes like job evaluation, selection, performance appraisal, compensation planning, etc.

- Definition: Structured questionnaires for job analysis.

- Components: Task statements rated by job incumbents and/or supervisors.

- Background Information: Includes worker/supervisor details, work experience, education, demographics, job satisfaction, physical demands, equipment usage, etc.

- Rating Dimensions: Typically assess aspects like time spent on tasks and their criticality for job performance.

- Analysis: Compiled results indicate average importance or time spent on each task by incumbents of the same job.

•Developed by Cornelius and Hakel (1978)

•Considered to be an alternative to the PAQ

•Contains 153 items and has a readability level appropriate for an employee with only a tenth-grade education

•Looks at KSAOs required to do job

•Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) identify KSAOs and then rate and rank each element in terms of importance required to do the job

Data, people, things in detail include

•Quantitative technique used to determine salary levels of jobs.

•Difference between job analysis and job evaluation is that job evaluation determines the relative salaries of different jobs by mathematically combining job information.

•The survey to assess the market value of a particular job.

•Needed for market comparable salary packages

Most popular job evaluation method.

Commonly used, can be applicable on a wider variety of jobs, systematic and a little less complex. This is an extension of the factor comparison method. Each factor is then divided into levels or degrees which are then assigned points.

Each job is rated using the job evaluation instrument. The points for each factor are summed to form a total point score for the job. Jobs are then grouped by total point score and assigned to salary grades. This method is used for job evaluation.

It helps in evaluating jobs by giving a detailed, analytical and quantitative evaluation. It identifies certain number of factors i.e. various characteristics of jobs and the determining degree to which the ease of such factors is present in the job.

_____________ are characteristics that will serve as basis for evaluation. May include educational requirement, skill requirement, responsibility, consequence of error on job et cetera

O is that different but comparable jobs should be paid the same.

O_________________ study involves:

1. Apply any job evaluation method to the jobs of an organization

2. Jobs held primarily by men are compared to those held by women.

3. If jobs held by women turn out to be underpaid according to the compensable factors, adjustments are calculated for underpaid jobs.

______________ involves comparing jobs within an organization to ensure that the people in jobs worth the most money paid accordingly.

1. It is fair

2. It is economical

3. It mitigates market biases

4. It leads to better employee relations and a stronger company

In addition, _____________ pay equity helps increase transparency and might uncover unintended consequences of historical executive compensation decisions.

The worth of a job is determined by comparing the job to the external market (other organizations).

•_________ equity is important if an organization is to attract and retain employees.

•To determine _____________ equity, organizations use salary surveys.

•these surveys ask how much an organization pays its employees in various positions. An organization can either construct and send out its own survey or use the results of surveys conducted by trade groups, an option that many organizations choose.

— An organization’s planned effort to facilitate employees’ learning of job-related competencies.

— The focus is on the current job

—Formal education, job experiences, relationships, and assessments of personality and abilities help employees prepare for the future.

— Focus is on future job

TRAINING IN ORGANIZATIONS

NEEDS ASSESSMENT
(Training Need Assessment – TNA)

—It is concerned with the objectives of the organization and how they are addressed by the performance of employees

—It is concerned with the nature of tasks involved in each job.

—A job analysis can identify major tasks and the necessary KSAOs for each task. The KSAOs can then help identify the specific training needs.

—It is concerned with how well job applicants or present employees are able to do tasks.

—It assesses the KSAO levels of people rather than of jobs.

—Comparison of KSAOs of jobs and people suggest the area of greatest potential training need.

Major methods of TNA are:

•Interviews/surveys with supervisors/managers

•Interviews/surveys with employees

•Employee performance appraisal documents

•Organization's strategic planning documents

•Organization/department operational plans

•Organization/department key performance indicators

•Customer complaints

•Product/service quality data

•One of the most important steps in developing a training program is setting the objectives, that is, the purpose of training

•Define the criteria for good training success

•Criteria serves as basis for research design as well as a standard against which training program can be evaluated

•The objectives of training are based on criteria and should include a statement of what a trainee should be able to do or know after training.

•Goal of any training is “Transfer of training”, that is, the  employees should be able to apply what they have learned on the job.

•Transfer of training is affected by:

1.Trainee Characteristics

2.Design Factors

3.Work Environment

•Ability – people differ in their capabilities to learn different tasks.  E.g. Some are better able to learn cognitive tasks while others may be more skilled at motor tasks.

•Attitudes and Motivation

•Learning styles

a.Feedback

•Building feedback into the training helps the trainees tell if they are learning the correct material

•Feedback can be in the form of an examination or it can be in the form of trainees asking questions of the trainer, especially if it is skill training

b.General Principles

•General principle means that training should teach why something is done and how it should be done.

•General principle provides a framework for learning

c.Identical Elements

•Identical element means that the stimuli and responses in the training are identical to those in the job situation. The closer the match in both, the easier it is for trainees to transfer the training

•Example: flight simulator and computer games

d.Over learning

•It refers to giving the trainee practice beyond that necessary to reach a criterion for success in training

•Idea is to learn and then continue to overlearn it so much that it becomes second nature

e.Sequence of training sessions –

•Whole vs. part - depends on complexity

•Massed vs. Distributed or Spaced – massed is long sessions taking place over a relatively short period of time. Spaced is relatively short training periods that are spread out over time

•Logistically, massed training sessions are better. However spaced training produces better retention of material over time.

—Supportive vs. non-supportive environment

—Opportunity to use the new training

•Building feedback into the training helps the trainees tell if they are learning the correct material

•Feedback can be in the form of an examination or it can be in the form of trainees asking questions of the trainer, especially if it is skill training

•General principle means that training should teach why something is done and how it should be done.

•General principle provides a framework for learning

•Identical element means that the stimuli and responses in the training are identical to those in the job situation. The closer the match in both, the easier it is for trainees to transfer the training

•Example: flight simulator and computer games

•It refers to giving the trainee practice beyond that necessary to reach a criterion for success in training

•Idea is to learn and then continue to overlearn it so much that it becomes second nature

•Whole vs. part - depends on complexity

•Massed vs. Distributed or Spaced – massed is long sessions taking place over a relatively short period of time. Spaced is relatively short training periods that are spread out over time

•Logistically, massed training sessions are better. However spaced training produces better retention of material over time.

TRAINING METHODS

I/O psychologists are mainly responsible for __________

Training Criteria are the standards for comparison so that it can be determined if training has been effective.

•Training Criteria are classified on two levels:

1.Training-Level criteria (What person learned):  It is concerned with what people are able to do at the end of training in the training environment itself rather than on the job.

2.Performance-Level criteria (Effects of training on job): It is concerned with transfer of training, that is, people’s performance on the job rather than in the training session.

Another way of classifying training criteria is to classify them into four types:

Part of Training-Level Criteria

a.Reactions – How much each trainee liked the training and believed they got out of it.

  Assessed by questionnaires at the end of training session.

b.Learning – What the person actually learned in the training.

  Might be assessed through examination.

Part of Performance-Level Criteria

a.Behavior – Behaviors of the trainee on the job that might be due to training, that is, whether or not person is doing the things he was taught.

b.Results – Whether or not the training affected what it was intended to.

A design is the structure of the evaluation study that specifies how data are collected.

•Training Criteria decides what type of design can be used. Example: For reaction criteria, a feasible design would include assessing only the training participants right at the end of training.

•Two most popular evaluation designs are:

1.Pretest-Posttest Design – Assesses the trainees before and after training.

2.Control Group Design – Compares trainees with a group of employees who have not been trained.

Deciding how to measure the chosen criteria.

•Training Criteria decides what type of measures can be used to assess it.

Example:

oReaction criteria requires questionnaire.

oLearning criteria requires test at the end of training.

oPerformance criteria requires measurement of trainee’s behavior or performance on job.

•There are many problems that may be faced in collecting data for measurement of criteria , most common one is that people are not always cooperative.

•Data from evaluation studies are analyzed with inferential statistics.

•In Pretest-Posttest design, statistics indicate how much trainees changed from pretest to posttest.

•In Control Group study, statistics indicate how much difference there is between the trained and untrained employees.

•In both cases, t-test is to be used.

(What person learned):  It is concerned with what people are able to do at the end of training in the training environment itself rather than on the job.

(Effects of training on job): It is concerned with transfer of training, that is, people’s performance on the job rather than in the training session.

a.Reactions – How much each trainee liked the training and believed they got out of it.

  Assessed by questionnaires at the end of training session.

b.Learning – What the person actually learned in the training.

  Might be assessed through examination.

a.Behavior – Behaviors of the trainee on the job that might be due to training, that is, whether or not person is doing the things he was taught.

b.Results – Whether or not the training affected what it was intended to.

Assesses the trainees before and after training.

Provides information about how much the trainees gained from the training.

•Major drawback of this design is that it is difficult to attribute changes to the training itself rather than other events in organization.

•Example: Supervisor informed about the low performance pressurizes employees to perform better. It coincides with training.

Compares trainees with a group of employees who have not been trained.

Compares employees who received training to equivalent employees who have not been trained. Employees are randomly selected and then randomly assigned to control and training groups.

•Major drawbacks are that it is difficult to use in organizations as random assignment is not always possible.

•Contamination may occur due to interaction between employees.