• : Death cannot be experienced with or for someone else. Although we can share the grief of others or witness their death, the actual experience of dying is fundamentally solitary.

: Death is unavoidable; it is the ultimate possibility that cannot be surpassed or escaped. It is the most certain aspect of life.

(a)  

For blank, your awareness of your death is what colors the whole rest of your life with meaning.

口 From the moment we're conscious, in our particular human mode of consciousness, which is both embodied and capable of language, we are aware that our death is approaching us from the future. We are always experiencing our death somewhere in the back of our mind, in that we know it's coming.

(a)  

So, your death is not just something at the end of life, it's beside you all along, like a shadow.

Heidegger asks us to consider ourself as something that "is there" (or there-being), in a world that is also there alongside with us. Heidegger uses the term blank.

(a)  

When you (Dasein) reflect on the world, it does not feel like that was made for just you.

口 There is a strange (abnormal) feeling that you are not it's center, that other processes and people have their own thing on, despite you being there.

口 Mountains did not rise for you, forests were not planted for you. This experience gives you one of its dispositions towards the world: thrownness.

(a)  

 is the feeling that you were put into something that was already in progress.

(a)  

You re part of something, and you have a feeling that it started before you, is somewhat (doubtful) towards you, and in all likelihood, will go on without you.

(a)  

口 Yet, the Dasein (person) also look to the future. Heidegger called it blank. To blank means to throw forward. When you consider the future, you undertake projects. blank is the consideration of your possibilities of action.

(a)  

original way of existence, meaning that you are open to the world, that you'll take an interest in it. You question the world, you're curious about the world, you care about your time here, because every time you do something, you're drawing nearer to not-being-here. 

(a)  

As a mortal being, your time is limited, so you have to choose what to spend your time on. Choosing where to use your time is the

(a)  

is not only meaningful, but it's the horizon of all meaning.

(a)  

was an English

Philosopher, considered to be one of the

founders of modern political philosophy.

• He is best known for his social theory. His vision

of the world is strikingly original and still

relevant to contemporary politics.

(a)  

His main concern is the problem of social and

political order: how humans can live together in

peace and avoid the danger of civil conflict.

• Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book

, in which he expounds an influential

(a)  

constituted by two distinguishable contracts. First, they must agree

to establish society by collectively and reciprocally renouncing the rights they had

against one another in the State of Nature.

• Second, they must imbue some one person or assembly of persons with the

authority and power to enforce the initial contract. In other words, to ensure their

escape from the State of Nature, they must both agree to live together under

common laws, and create an enforcement mechanism for the social contract and

the laws that constitute it.

(a)  

was one of

the most influential thinkers THOMAS HOBBES

during the Enlightenment in 18th

century Europe.

• In his book The Discourse On The

• Hobbes (1588-1679), was an English

Philosopher, considered to be one of the

Origin of Inequality, he claimed

founders of modern political philosophy.

that humans are basically good by

nature, but were corrupted by the

• He is best known for his social theory. His vision

complex historical events that

of the world is strikingly original and still

resulted in present day civil

relevant to contemporary politics.

society.

(a)  

peace and avoid the danger of civil conflict.

caused great controversy in France

• Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book

and were immediately banned by

Paris authorities.

Leviathan, in which he expounds an influential

formulation of social contract theory.

• Aside from John Locke, Rousseau is

also considered by some historians

as one of the main inspiration in

French Revolution

(a)  

was a peaceful and quixotic time

(noble savage, foolishly romantic just like Cervantes’ Don Quixote). People

lived uncomplicated lives. Their few needs were easily satisfied by nature.

• Because of the abundance of nature and small population, competition

was non-existent, and persons rarely even saw one another, much less

had reason for conflict or fear.

• These simple people, morally pure persons were naturally endowed with

pity, therefore were not inclined to bring harm to one another.

(a)  

Eventually, those who have property notice that it would be in their interests to create a government that would protect private property from those who do not have it but can see that they might be able to acquire it by force.

• So governments gets established, through a contract (agreement), which purports to guarantee equality and protection for all, even though its true purpose is to

fossilize the very inequalities that private property has produced.

• In other words, the contract, which claims to be in the interests of everyone equally, is really in the interests of the few who have become stronger and richer as a result of the developments of private property.

(a)  

The most crucial concept in Rousseau’s theory is the general will, which represents the collective interests of all people. Unlike individual wills, the general will is focused on the

common good, not personal advantage.

• Rousseau argues that legitimate political authority can only be based on the collective agreement of the people. The social contract is an expression of this collective will. This is where

the idea of direct democracy comes into play, as Rousseau believed that people should participate actively in making laws.

• He differentiates between the sovereign (the people as a collective law-making body) and the government (the administrators of the laws). For him, a government is legitimate only if it follows the general will

(a)  

According to Oxford Reference, is the process and product of sharing experiences, knowledge, understandings, and expectations with others (other minds).

(a)  

• a key feature of social constructionism, symbolic interactionism, and phenomenological approaches generally. The existence, nature, and meaning of things is not entirely up to the individual but subject to social and linguistic constraints within a culture (there has to be some degree of consensus, or communication would be impossible).

The concept of intersubjectivity not only attacks the undiluted subjectivism of extreme philosophical idealism, but also the pure objectivism of naïve realism, since the same constraints filter our apprehension of the world.

intersubjective experience plays a fundamental role in our constitution of both ourselves, other experiencing subjects, and the objective spatio-temporal world.

(a)  

the process in which the self goes beyond subjective experience) attempts to reconstruct the rational structures underlying – and making possible – these achievement

(a)  

Born in Austria, spent most of his life in

Germany & Israel.

• He is best known for his 1923 book (I & Thou),

which distinguishes between “I-Thou” and “I-

It” modes of existence.

• He rejected the label “existentialist” which

emphasizes on “monologic”. Buberian Philosophy’s emphasis is on the “dialogic” intersubjectivit

(a)  

Buber’s most influential philosophic work, I and Thou (1923), is based on a distinction between

(a)  

relation is driven by categories of “same” and “different” and focuses on universal definition.

• An I-It relation experiences a detached thing, fixed space and time, it avoids participation in the dynamic living process of an “other”.

• Such approach is considered a Monological Relation.

• Buber explains that monologue is not just a turning away from the other but also a turning back on oneself.

• To perceive the other as an “It” is to take them as a classified and hence predictable and manipulable object that exists only as a part of one’s own experiences

(a)  

Such relation is the pure encounter of one whole unique entity with another in such a way that the other is known without being subsumed under a universal.

• Not yet subject to classification or limitation, the “Thou” is not reducible to spatial or temporal characteristics.

• Dialogical Relation.

• In “I-Thou” relation, both participants exist as polarities of

relation, whose center lies in the between

(a)  

may be taken as the sum of its inherent attributes and acts, or it may be taken as a unitary, whole, irreducible being.

(a)  

relation is a self-enclosed, solitary individual that takes itself as the subject of experience.

(a)  

of the “” relation is a whole, focused, single person that knows itself as subject.

(a)  

Born on 1906, and died on Christmas Day, 1995.

• Born in Lithuania at the time when it was still part of the Russian Empire.

• One of the first philosophers in France to work on Husserl.

• He was able to do a semester with Heidegger at the University of Freiburg (Germany)

(a)  

There is on the individual, interpersonal, and on the social levels.

• Following Spinoza, the desire of every being to persevere in its being (Connatus Essendi).

• Every being desires to remain, to conserve itself

(a)  

The concern of the individual being is turned towards itself.

• In this kind of movement, there is a certain “allergy” towards the other.

• Allergy takes different forms: fear, insecurity, aggressivity.

• Our goal is one of enjoyment and what characterizes enjoyment precisely, is the intensification of the centripetal movement

(a)  

Three elements or three poles and one’s reflection can focus on any one of these poles:

- matter being talked about (pinag-uusapan)

- person doing the speaking (kumakausap)

- the one spoken to (kinakausap)

• “Speaking to” which cannot be reduced to a “speaking about”

(a)  

For Levinas, these senses of transcendence (Husserl, Heidegger, & Sartre) are acceptable, but not primary.

• Instead, Levinas aligns transcendence with exteriority, in the sense of what lies outside myself but eludes my comprehensive knowledge: the other person.

• The encounter with the other is an encounter with a visible thing, of course. But this other speaks to me, implores or commands me.

• In responding, I discover my responsibility to them.

(a)  

This is the ground of ethics or indeed our concern with ethics as the good of the other person

As Levinas argues, when ethics goes in search of its existential ground, before any consideration of utility (Bentham), virtue (Aristotle), or duty (Kant), it discovers the intersubjective enactment of responsibility, which resists being integrated into accounts in which the other is a universal other to whom it is my duty, for example, to act ethically or in hope of increasing the happiness of the collectivity.

(a)  

infinite, without end.

- kapag tumanaw ka ng utang na loob, ito ay

habambuhay

(a)  

• Born in Athens in circa 427 B.C.E.

• Until his mid-twenties, Athens was involved in a long and disastrous military conflict with Sparta, known as the Peloponnesian War.

• Father Side: Descending from Codrus (one of the early Kings of Athens).

• Mother Side: Descending from Solon (prominent reformer of Athenian Constitution

• He was a pupil of Socrates, whom he considered the most just man of his time.

• Plato’s Academy, which provided a base for succeeding generations of Platonic Philosophers until its final closure in C.E. 529, became the most famous teaching institution of the Hellenistic world

• Throughout Plato’s later life, he became entangled with the politics of the city of Syracuse.

• Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysius.

Justice is speaking the truth,

and repaying what one has borrowed.

Poet Simonides = Justice is treating friends

well, and enemies badly (The Case of

Chef/Cook & Doctors)

(a)  

•  argues, is not to the exclusive advantage of any of the city’s factions, but is concerned with the common good of the whole community, and is to the advantage of everyone.

•  It provides the city with the sense of unity, and thus, is a basic condition for its health.  Justice and it’s relation to others’ observation (Ring of Gyges).

 For Plato, our happiness (eudaimonia) largely resides in being unified with other people. Being unified with others entails considering their own good when we act. When people are unified, they share in each other’s pleasures and successes and failures as evidence for this.  Thus, behaving unjustly, which involves disregarding other’s good, is incompatible with being unified with others and with our happines

• Plato argues that human enter socio-political life since each is not self- sufficient by nature.

•  Each human has certain natural abilities, and doing only the single job one is naturally suited for, is the most efficient way to satisfy the needs of all the citizens

• Guardians, Ruling Class)

- Wisdom Lovers

Auxiliaries, Military Class)

(a)  

• the elite group in Plato’s Republic. They are the only group in the city to have access to, and to exercise political power.

 They are responsible in formulating and enacting laws of the city

• They alone have the power to declare war, regulate warfare, and make peace. To them falls the responsibility for maintaining the breeding policies of the city – particularly with respect to the military class; and for maintaining the health of the citizenry.

•  For Plato, the ’ philosophical training, their necessary attainment of knowledge of the true forms, of the ultimate nature of general ideas, of conceptual thought, would lead them to act in concert without the need for formal structures.

Their education and training are extensive, lasting until they are 50-years-old, and they only have three types of duties:

a. Protect the city from external enemies

b. Protect the city from internal enemies

c. Perform administrative functions

required by the city.

 -They are to have no access to wealth or property, save the necessities of life.

- Biological family is denied among them.

- They are to live in a communal environment without privacy; mating is to be controlled without their knowledge.

- Their happiness is to be subordinated to the collective happiness of the city.

- They are required to give unquestioning

obedience to the Guardians. Yet, just like Hoi Polloi, they have no access to political power

(a)  

The education of is not specifically provided for.  Although they are required to be

obedient to, and to be taught and guided by the laws of the city, they appear not to be subject to the same legal strictures as are applied to the other two classes in terms of marriage, family

(a)  

• Plato asserts that politics must execute measures in relation to censorship of art.

• Art should prevent people from laughing violently. Art should promote truth (Allegory of the Cave). Art should promote self- discipline and obedience. Art should avoid stories that contribute to avarice (material greed).

• Art should avoid stories that contribute to hubris or impiety

causes civil war, hatred, and fighting, while justice brings friendship and a sense of common purpose

(a)  

it is the main function of the political leadership of philosopher-rulers to make the civil strife cease.

(a)  

this mediating function is taken over by Civil Laws.

(a)  

• The best form of government, which Plato advances (blank) is a philosophical aristocracy or philosophical monarchy. The worst kind of government is the blank

• Aristotle’s social philosophy stems from the idea that the society is a creation of nature prior to the individual who lives within it. This is

shown by the fact that the individual human being is dependent on the society for her formation and survival.

• One who lives outside the society is either a beast or a god, that is, does not participate in what is common to humanity. Society is natural

(a)  

• (Theoretical Wisdom) – Contemplation of truth and eternal things.​

• (Practical Wisdom) – Ability to make sound judgments in everyday life.​

• (Art or Craft Knowledge) – Skill in making things.​

• (Scientific Knowledge) – Systematic understanding of universal truths.​

• – Intuitive grasp of basic principles.​

• Aristotle’s use of one word, blank (friendship) to refer to the wide range of relationships in a political community, such as those between buyers and sellers of goods, not just to those based on personal intimacy between non-kin.​

• Whatever the nature of the many varieties of friendship, they all flow from one source: the disposition of human beings to develop a sense of concern for the good of individuals with whom they share a wide range of goods, identities and activities.​

• Aristotle nonetheless classifies forms of friendship with reference to the ends shared by individuals: pleasure, advantage, and virtuous activity.​

• On the most superficial level, one finds pleasure-friendships (which an individual develops with someone whom one sees simply, or primarily, as someone who is pleasant or fun to be with).​

Such friendship refers to that which an individual develops with someone whom he/she thinks of as useful to his/her other projects, as might be the case between business partners

(a)  

• The most basic, paradigmatic (in the sense that it fully exhibits all the  characteristics which one reasonably expects a friendship to have), perfect type of friendship, namely, the friendship of people who are good and alike in virtue.​

• This kind of friendship is commonly known to us as our best friend. ​

• Libertarians argue that individuals have full ownership over their bodies, lives, and the fruits of their labor. This means no one else has the right to control or infringe upon an individual's choices, as long as those choices do not violate the rights of others.​

• Freedom in libertarianism is often understood as negative freedom — the absence of coercion or interference by others, particularly the government. Libertarians emphasize freedom from external control rather than freedom to achieve specific outcomes.​

• Libertarianism values freedom in economic transactions, where individuals can engage in voluntary trade or agreements without coercion or excessive regulation.​

A cornerstone of libertarian thought, the NAP holds that individuals should not initiate force or fraud against others. The use of force is only justified in self-defense

(a)  

• Freedom is closely tied to the right to own, control, and transfer private property. Libertarians argue that respect for property rights is essential for a free society.​

The ideal state in libertarian thought is limited to protecting individual rights, such as life, liberty, and property. This is achieved through functions like law enforcement, courts, and national defense, while avoiding interference in personal or economic matters

(a)  

• With freedom comes responsibility. Libertarians emphasize that individuals must take responsibility for their choices and actions without relying on the state or others for support.

• Individuals should have the liberty to associate (or not) with whomever they choose, be it in personal relationships, organizations, or business ventures.​

• These concepts collectively form the libertarian vision of a society where individuals are free to pursue their own lives as they see fit, as long as they respect the equal freedom of others.​

• June 21, 1905 – April 15 1980​

• French philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic, considered a leading figure in 20th-century French philosophy.​

• His work has influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies.​

• Awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature despite attempting to refuse it.​

• Notable works: Being and Nothingness, Existentialism is a Humanism, No Exit.​

• Sartre asserts that freedom is intrinsic to human existence. To "exist" as a human is to be fundamentally free, meaning individuals are always free to make choices, even in the face of external constraints.

• Sartre emphasizes that human freedom is absolute and inescapable. People are "condemned to be free," meaning they cannot escape the responsibility of choosing and shaping their own lives

• He introduces the concept of bad faith, where individuals deny their own freedom by blaming circumstances, societal expectations, or external forces for their choices. This self-deception is a way to avoid the anxiety of freedom and responsibility.​

• With radical freedom comes absolute . Sartre believes that individuals are fully responsible for their actions, decisions, and the meaning they create in their lives, as there are no predetermined values or external authorities to guide them.​

• Sartre connects freedom to his concept of nothingness (néant). Humans, as conscious beings, are not defined by their past or essence; instead, they have the capacity to transcend their facticity (the given facts of existence) and project themselves into the future through their choices.​

• To live authentically is to embrace one's freedom and take ownership of one's choices without resorting to excuses or external justification. To live authentically is to embrace one's freedom and take ownership of one's choices without resorting to excuses or external justification. Authenticity involves acknowledging the weight of one's freedom and living in accordance with self-chosen values.​

• Sartre famously claims that "existence precedes essence," meaning that individuals are not born with a predetermined purpose or nature. Instead, they must create their own essence through free actions and decisions.​

• While Sartre's early works focus on individual freedom, his later writings, such as Critique of Dialectical Reason, explore how freedom operates in social and historical contexts. He acknowledges that societal structures and relationships can limit or condition freedom, but individuals retain the power to resist and reinterpret these constraints

• Sartre associates freedom with existential . The realization of one's radical freedom and the absence of predetermined values can be overwhelming, but this anguish is a natural part of human existence.

• Sartre views freedom as inherently creative. By making choices and taking actions, individuals create meaning, values, and even their own identity, shaping the world around them