(a)  

defined by the relative positions of its particles   (particles & atoms)

(a)  

ST ID

(a)  

MACROSCOPIC

• fixed shape; does NOT conform with the shape of the container

MICROSCOPIC

• particles lie next to each other; regular, three-dimensional array

MACROSCOPIC

• varying shape that conforms to the shape of the container but only to the extent of the liquid’s volume; has an upper surface

MICROSCOPIC

• particles lie close together but move randomly around each other

MACROSCOPIC

• varying shape that conforms to the shape of the container, but it fills the entire container; does NOT have a surface

MICROSCOPIC

• particles have large distances between them & move randomly throughout the container

, a state of matter in which separate atoms or subatomic particles, cooled to near absolute zero (0 K, − 273.15 °C, or − 459.67 °F; K = kelvin), coalesce into a single quantum mechanical entity—that is, one that can be described by a wave function—on a near-macroscopic scale.

(a)  

Matter is converted into energy by atomic reactions, also known as.

(a)  

The TOTAL ENERGY an object possesses is the SUM of its  _ ENERGY.

(a)  

• Energy due to the POSITION of the object relative to other objects.

• Energy due to the MOTION of the object.

1. When energy is converted from one form to the other, it is [], NOT destroyed

1. Situations of [] energy, are more stable, and therefore favored, over situations of [] energy (less stable)

• ENERGY is stored in the bonds of [].

• ENERGY is Released during chemical reaction in the form of []

• Reactions that require an input of heat to proceed may store some of that energy as chemical energy in newly formed bonds.

• t/f

• Are characteristics a substance shows by itself, WITHOUT changing into or interacting with one another.

• Are characteristics a substance as it changes into or interacts with another substance/s.

• physical property that DOES NOT DEPEND ON THE QUANTITY OR SIZE

  1. COLOr,TEXTURE

     ,ODOR,STATE OF MATTER,DENSITY,MELTING POINT,BOILING POINT,SOLUBILITY,CONDUCTIVITY

  2. DUCTILITY,HARDNESS,TRANSPARENCY,LUSTER,VISCOSITY
     

• physical property that DEPENDs ON THE QUANTITY OR SIZE

  1. MASS

  2. VOLUME

  3. ENERGY

  4. TOTAL CHARGE

  5. NUMBER OF PARTICLES

  6. MOLES

  7. AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE

  8. TOTAL MOMENTUM

  9. TOTAL KINETIC ENERGY

  10. TOTAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

1.  substance reacts with another substance to form new compounds

1. ability of a substance to burn or undergo combustion.. refers to a material’s ability to burn when ignited, but not necessarily easily or quickly. Combustible materials can burn, but usually require higher temperatures or more effort to ignite than flammable ones.

1. reaction of a substance with oxygen and moisture

   Ex. Rusting of Iron (Fe) - Iron + oxygen (presence of moisture) => Iron Oxide (rust)

1. pH level of a substance 

1. ease with which a substance can catch fire and burn; low ignition temperature; under rapid combustion. how easily a substance ignites at normal temperatures. Flammable materials catch fire quickly and easily, often at relatively low temperatures.

1. substance that can cause harm after reacting with another substance

5. substance are chemically stable and do not readily react with other substances under normal conditions Ex. Noble gases - high chemical stability

   
   

non uniform mixture;uniform mixture

(a)  

• Separates the components of mixtures on the basis of DIFFERENCES IN PARTICLE SIZE.

• It is used most often to separate a liquid from a solid particle

• Key step in the purification of tap water

• It is based on the DIFFERENCES IN SOLUBILITY. Key substances in computer chips and other electronic devices are purified by this type. its a physical change.

it is the process of obtaining crystals of the solute from a hot saturated solution

• amount that dissolves in a fixed volume of solvent at a given temperature.

Separates components through DIFFERENCES IN VOLATILITY, the tendency of a substance to become a gas.

(a)  

is a separation technique used to isolate a desired substance from a mixture using a suitable solvent.

The process takes advantage of differences in solubility, where the target substance is soluble in the chosen solvent while the other components are not. Once dissolved, the desired substance can be separated from the insoluble materials and, if needed, recovered from the solvent through processes such as evaporation, distillation, or precipitation.

(a)  

• Another technique based on DIFFERENCES IN SOLUBILITY.

• Mobile Phase & Stationary Phase

• Different types of chromatography: Gas-Liquid Chromatography (GLC),

   High-Performance (high pressure) Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

is the solvent or gas that flows through the chromatographic system and transports the analyte (substance being analyzed) along the stationary phase.

(a)  

The [] is the non-moving phase in chromatography that interacts with the components of the mixture being separated.
Different substances in the mixture are attracted to the stationary phase to varying degrees, which causes them to move at different speeds and separate from one another.

ex. the fibers of the filter paper

(a)  

CENTRAL THEME OF CHEMISTRY

(a)  

various industrial, domestic & environmental needs

H₂O

(a)  

Disinfectant, bleaching agent, rocketry

H₂O₂

(a)  

 Natural gas; for heating & electricity generation

CH₄

(a)  

Simple sugar; energy source of living organisms

C₆H₁₂O₆

(a)  

Strong acid; battery manufacturing and mineral processing

H₂SO₄

(a)  

Carbonation of beverages & refrigerant

CO₂

(a)  

Seasoning & Food Preservation

NaCl

(a)  

Beverages, fuels, solvent in many industries

C₂H₅OH

(a)  

Cleaning products, fertilizers, industrial processes

NH₃

(a)  

Manufacturing fertilizers, explosives & chemicals

HNO₃

(a)  

Respiration, combustion, industrial and medical applications

O₂

(a)  

Cooking, cleaning, solvent

CH₃COOH

(a)  

Construction, manufacturing, antacid

CaCO₃

(a)  

Soaps, detergents, chemical manufacturing

KOH

(a)  

Industrial processes (pickling and pH control

HCl

(a)  

Various industrial processes; soap making

NaOH

(lye or caustic soda)

(a)  

Antifreeze in automobile radiators

C₆H₅O₂

(a)  

Pain reliever; anti-inflammatory

C₉H₈O₄

(a)  

High-nitrogen fertilizer; explosives

NH₄NO₃

(a)  

Sweetening foods and beverages

C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁

(a)  

Natural processes and industrial activities

H₂S

(a)  

Anaesthetic; whipped cream dispensers

N₂O

(a)  

Various industrial processes (winemaking)

SO₂

(a)  

Food and beverage production; manufacturing detergents & fertilizers

H₃PO₄

(a)  

MIXTURES

solutions

Homogeneous/Heterogeneous

(a)  

MIXTURES

colloids and suspensions

Homogeneous/Heterogeneous

(a)  

MIXTURES

particle size: 0.01-1nm; can be atoms, ions, molecules

don't separate on standing

cannot be separated by filtration

do not scatter light

(a)  

MIXTURES

particle size: 1-1000nm; dispersed; can be aggregates or large molecules

don't separate on standing

cannot be separated by filtration

scatter light (tyndall effect)

(a)  

MIXTURES

particle size: >1000nm; dispersed; can be aggregates or large particles

particle settle out

can be separated by filtration

may scatter light but not transparent

(a)  

MIXTURES

is a homogeneous mixture with tiny particles. The particles are too small to see and also too small to settle or be filtered out of the mixture. When the salt is thoroughly mixed into the water in this glass, it will form a []. The salt will no longer be visible in the water, and it won’t settle to the bottom of the glass.

(a)  

MIXTURES

is a heterogeneous mixture with medium-sized particles. The particles are large enough to see but not large enough to settle or be filtered out of the mixture.

(a)  

just ans .

(a)  

(a)  

(a)  

(a)  

(a)  

(a)  

(a)  

(a)  

current system of measurement began in [], that led to the []. (National Assembly in France; Lavoisier was a member)

(a)  

In 1960, another international committee (General Conference on Weights and Measures) met in France to establish the[]

(a)  

The SI system is based on a set of [] fundamental/base units, each of which is identified with a [] quantity.

(a)  

All other units called [], are combination of these seven basic units.

(a)  

For quantities that are much smaller or much larger than the base unit, we use [] and [].

(a)  

metric system km -> mili

NOTE: units before km, multiply by 10

NOTE: units after mili, divide by 10

(a)  

The introduction of the SI SYSTEM in measurement, consists of 7 fundamental units, makes it easier to measure matter.

(a)  

(a)  

type .

(a)  

The meter is based on two quantities:

(a)  

• SI base UNIT: Kilogram (Kg)

• Refers to the quantity of matter it contains

• The only base unit whose standard is a physical object (platinum-iridium cylinder in France)

• mass/volume

• Matter has its own specific value

• Under given condition of temperature and pressure, it is a characteristic physical property of a substance.

• Based on atomic standard (atomic clock measures the oscillations of microwave radiation absorbed by gaseous cesium atoms cooled to around 10⁻⁶ K)

• All measuring devices are made to limited specifications.

• The device we use depends on how much [] is acceptable.

• We always estimate the [] DIGIT of a measurement.

The [] the number of significant figures, the greater is the CERTAINTY of measurement.

(a)  

All digits are SIGNIFICANT, except [] used only to position the decimal point.

ex. 0.0123

• Count that digit and every digit to its right as significant, even trailing zeroes (ex.0.05400 has 4 significant figures)

The answer contains the same number of significant figures as there are in the measurement with the FEWEST DECIMAL PLACES.

(a)  

The answer contains the same number of significant figures as there are in the measurement with the FEWEST SIGNIFICANT FIGURES.

(a)  

The general rule for rounding off: The [] certain measurement sets the limit on certainty for the entire calculation and determines the number of [] in the final answer.

(a)  

probs involving multistep or chain calcs

1. 1. Always [] sig fig through the multistep calc and round off in []

2. 2. the final ans should be rounded off based on the number of sig figs of the [] performed operation

The [] you choose determines the number of significant figures you can obtain

(a)  

EXACT NUMBERS have no uncertainty associated with.

Exact numbers [] the number of significant figures

(a)  

Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.

Produces values that are EITHER ALL HIGHER or ALL LOWER than the actual value

Factors: Faulty measuring device (instrumental error); Consistent mistake in taking a reading (operator error); method error

(a)  

Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.

Produces values that are HIGHER and LOWER than the actual value

Factors: Measurer’s skill, Instrument’s precision, Natural causes, Set up of experiment

(a)  

PRECISION (Uncertainty)

• how to get AVERAGE/MEAN of data(x) 

PRECISION (Uncertainty)

• how to get ABSOLUTE DEVIATION (AD)

• NOTE: the value of AD is in absolute value(always positive)

PRECISION (Uncertainty)

• how to get AVERAGE DEVIATION (AD) with line above AD(also referred to as the uncertainty)

PRECISION (Uncertainty)

• RANGE OF ACCEPTED VALUE:

  
  

This is used when  comparing an  experimental result to a value determined by theory or to an accepted known value.

(a)  

formula for %error

(a)  

This is used when  comparing two values that are both determined by experimentation, we do not have a “correct” or accepted value to which to compare, so we simply look at how different the two values are as a percentage of their average values.

(a)  

Scientists used a tool called [] (Factor-label Method) to convert numbers and units in an organized fashion. 

(a)  

The MAIN GOAL in conversion:

(a)  

conversion steps

(a)  

Ratios used to express a measured quantity in different units.

(a)  

1200.0−0.56

(a)  

0.002340×2.10

(a)  

solve

(a)  

convert 650g to kg. use the conversion factor method

states that no matter what its source , a particular compound is composed of the same elements in parts (fractions) by mass.

(a)  

formula for mass of element in law of definite composition

(a)  

Pitchblende is the most important compound of uranium.  Mass analysis of an 84.2-Kg sample shows that it contains 71.4 Kg of uranium, with oxygen the only other element.  How many grams of uranium are in 102 kg of pitchblende?

Given: 84.2 Kg = mass (m1) of pitchblende

            71.4 Kg = mass (mU1) of uranium

            102 Kg = mass (m2) of pitchblende

Mass (Kg) of Uranium

 = 102 Kg pitchblende(71.4 kg uranium/84.2 kg pitchblende)

  = 86.5 Kg U or 8.65 x 104 g U

(a)  

• It states that if elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers.

All matter consists of atoms, tiny indivisible particles of an element that cannot be created or destroyed.

(a)  

atoms of one element CANNOT be converted into atoms of another  element.  In chemical reactions, the atoms of the original substances recombine to form different substances. 

(a)  

3. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other properties are different from atoms of any other element.

3. Compounds result from the chemical combination of a specific ratio of atoms of different elements.

 Atoms cannot be created or destroyed (postulate 1) or converted into other types of atoms (postulate 2).  Therefore, a chemical reaction, in which atoms are combined differently, cannot possibly result in a mass change.

(a)  

A compound of a specific ratio of different atoms (postulate 4), each of which has a particular mass (postulate 3).  Thus, each element in a compound constitutes a fixed fraction of the total mass.

(a)  

   Atoms of an element have the same mass (postulate 3) and are indivisible (postulate 1).  The masses of element B that combine with a fixed mass of element A give a small, whole-number ratio because different numbers of B atoms combine with each A atom in different compounds.

(a)  

• the NEGATIVE particles surrounding the nucleus of an atom.

•  discovered by []

• positively charged particle in the nucleus of the atom

• Discovered by []

• a neutral subatomic particle present in the nucleus of an atom

• Discovered by []

mass of neutron > proton > electron

(a)  

• Democritus – Greek philosopher around the year 400 BC

• He concluded that atom could not be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever. Eventually, the smallest piece of matter would be found. 

• He used the word “atomos” to describe the smallest possible piece of matter

• John Dalton – English chemist that proposed the first atomic theory in 1803

• Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles found in all matter.

• The rays appear when these particles collide with the few remaining gas molecules in an evacuated tube.

• Cathode ray particles were later named .

• J.J. Thomson – English scientist who discovered electrons in 1897

• Sometimes called the “plum pudding” model, Thomson thought of an atom as being composed of a positively charged material with the negatively charged electrons scattered through it

• 1909, measured the charge of the electron by observing the movement of oil droplets in an apparatus that contained electrically charged plates and an x-ray source.

• Ernest Rutherford – British physicist who, in 1908 proved the atom had a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.

• Rutherford’s model proposed that an atom is mostly empty space. There is a small, positive nucleus with the negative electrons scattered around the outside edge

• Niels Bohr – Danish scientist who, in 1913, proposed the “Planetary Model” of the atom

• Electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus, like planets moving around the sun. Bohr proposed that each electron moves in a specific energy level

• The probable location of an electron is based on how much energy it has.

• The more energy an electron has, the farther it is from the nucleus

• The small positively charged nucleus is surrounded by a large space in which there are enough electrons to make the atom neutral

• Based on wave mechanics, this model proposed that electrons have no definite path in an atom

The more energy an electron has, the [] it is from the nucleus

(a)  

a count of the total number of 

                              protons and neutrons in an atom’s 

                              nucleus.

(a)  

weighted average mass of an atom 

                            based on the relative abundance of   

                            that element’s isotopes.

(a)  

one of two or more species of atoms of a 

                   chemical element with the different number of 

                    neutrons but with same atomic 

                   number and position in the periodic table.

h-1 is an isotope btw. itll only not become an isotope if that variation rly doesnt exist

(a)  

• Atomic Number ([]) 🡪 number of unit positive charges                           

Number  of Protons = Z                             

• Mass Number ([]) 🡪 total number of protons and neutrons

     A = number of neutrons + number of protons

A = number of neutrons + Z

(a)  

The mass of the atom is relative to the mass of an []

(a)  

• The modern atomic mass standard =

• Atomic mass unit (amu) = ½ the mass of a []

• Atomic mass unit (amu) has been changed to Dalton (da)

• One [] has a mass of 12 Daltons (12 Da or 12 amu)

The isotopic makeup of an element is determined by []

• Method for measuring the relative masses and abundances of atomic-scale particles very precisely. 

• The measurements gathered provide data for obtaining the atomic mass (atomic weight) of an element.

• ATOMIC MASS = the average of the masses of its naturally occurring isotopes weighted according to their abundance.

(a)  

avg isotopic masses formula

(a)  

just ans . since i aint sure

dont apply the sig figs rule for calculating avg isotopic mass

(a)  

1. Isotopes such as carbon-14 (^14C) and uranium-238 (^238U) are used in archaeology and geology to determine the age of fossils, rocks, and archaeological artifacts. This helps in understanding the history of Earth and its inhabitants.

1. Radioactive isotopes like technetium-99m (^99mTc) and iodine-131 (^131I) are used in medical imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) to diagnose and treat various medical conditions.

3. : Radioactive isotopes are employed in cancer treatment. For example, iodine-131 is used in the treatment of thyroid cancer, while cobalt-60 (^60Co) and other isotopes are used in external beam radiation therapy.

Americium-241 (^241Am) is commonly used in smoke detectors. It emits alpha particles that ionize air, creating a small electric current. When smoke enters the detector, it disrupts the current, triggering an alarm.

Which subatomic particle is responsible for isotopes of the same element having different masses?

(a)  

Which statement best explains why electrons are not included in the calculation of atomic mass?

(a)  

Which subatomic particle is responsible for chemical bonding between atoms?

(a)  

quartium is an isotope of hydrogen t/f

(a)  

What is the average atomic mass of boron if B-10 (10.0129 amu) has an abundance of 19.9% and B-11 (11.0093 amu) has an abundance of 80.1%?

(a)  

Why do isotopes of the same element have nearly identical chemical behavior?

(a)  

Which subatomic particle contributes most to the mass of an atom?


(a)  

Which subatomic particle determines the identity of an element?


(a)  

(a)  

Which among the given physical quantities

below is NOT a derived quantity?

A. Amount of substance

B. Density

C. Pressure

D. Volume

(a)  

What do you call a procedure used to convert

between units in solving chemistry problems?

A. Dimensional Analysis

B. Factor-Exponent Method

C. Number-Unit Method

D. Variable-Label Analysis

(a)  

4. What term is used to refer to the closeness of a

measurement to each other?

(a)  

used when  comparing an  experimental result to a value determined by theory or to an accepted known value.

(a)  

Which of the following BEST describes a set of

measurements that is precise but not accurate?

A. Measurements that are scattered and

far from the accepted value.

B. Measurements that are both close tp

each other and close to the accepted

value.

C. Measurement that are consistently

close to each other but far from the

accepted value.

D. Measurements that are close to the

true or accepted value but vary widely

from one another

(a)  

10. Which of the following BEST describes what

percent error measures in an experiment?

A. The total deviation of all measurements

from the mean value.

B. The closeness of a measurement to the

actual or accepted value.

C. The difference between measured

values repeated multiple times.

D. The ratio of the absolute error to the

accepted value, expressed as a

percentage.

(a)