• _____ is an important factor in the development of civilization. Over time, communities of humans emerged in regions with the most ideal conditions for continued survival and development.

• The Twin Rivers of _____, the Tigris and the Euphrates, were important factors in the development of the earliest communities in the Near East.

• The northern plains of _____ were a region of dry summers and mild winters. These conditions encouraged the settlement of early communities in the area. The southern region, on the other hand, was a much drier land.

• The earliest settlers in this area had to rely on the land being arable and fertile. _____ ensured a highly productive agricultural lifestyle in the communities along the rivers, resulting in increased populations within the farming communities.
• The resources and coordination required in building and maintaining _____ works resulted in the emergence of a central authority in early societies.

• At around 3500 BCE, _____ emerged as an advanced city, signaling the start of the Urban Revolution, which was the emergence of the various city-states from simple and agrarian communities within Mesopotamia.

• The growth of civilization within the Fertile Crescent was marked by diversity and transition. The city-states and kingdoms of _____ were populated by diverse groups of people having varied ethnicities and languages.

• The emergence of empires in the Near East signaled the

initial stages in the establishment of a community that went

beyond native cultures and ethnicities.

• The task of establishing and managing an empire resulted in further changes in culture, society and technology, and the emergence of cultural traits that would encompass and unite diverse communities, city-states, and kingdoms..

• The civilizations that flourished in _____ centered on the highly advanced city-states of the southern region of what is now modern-day Iraq. This region was known as Sumer or the Land of Kings. Among the notable city-states within this region were Uruk, Eridu, and Ur.

• The Sumerian city-states were greatly independent and competitive, and the region was home to a multiethnic and polyglot population. However, the people of Sumer were united by common cultural practices-a shared system of writing (_____) and religion.

• Sumer vied with its neighboring region, _____, for control over southern Mesopotamia. Later on, _____ conquered the city-states of Sumer, bringing an end to the rule of the kings of Sumer.

• It was the product of the conquests of t from the city-state of Kish.

• His defeat of the High King of Uruk in 2334 BCE, established a unified Mesopotamia. Sargon, whose name means "legitimate ruler," established a new capital located near modern day Baghdad. This now-lost city was called Agade or _____e, and it was from this new capital that the first empire ever established took its name.

• _____, under Sargon's rule, extended into the eastern and northwestern regions of Mesopotamia. The _____ian Empire at its height reached as far as Syria and Turkey, gaining access to important trade routes and regions rich in resources, such as precious metals and timber.

• _____ also had an overwhelming cultural influence in Mesopotamia. The _____ian language became the lingua franca or the common tongue within the region for almost two thousand years.

Evidence of the grandeur of the _____ian empire was preserved in various monuments erected by Sargon and his successors.

• The various inscriptions preserved in stone or clay revealed that _____ian rulers adopted religious themes to further legitimize their claim to authority.

• _____, declared himself equal to the gods, and attached the title of "king of the four quarters, king of the universe" to his name.

• Despite the display of power and authority, _____ian supremacy was continually challenged by aggressive neighbors and rebellious subjects. The empire disintegrated at around 2230 BCE following the death of the last _____ian ruler

• The cities of Sumer and _____, at the heart of Mesopotamia, were ruled by governors appointed from local ruling families. On the other hand, the territories at the frontiers were ruled by military commanders.

• All territories of the empire had to pay a monthly or annual tribute, which was paid in kind. The yearly tribute of the frontier regions was paid in livestock, usually in wool- bearing sheep.

• The rulers of _____ also revitalized Sumerian culture through several architectural projects. Foremost among these was the Great Ziggurat of _____, built during the reign of _____-Nammu. The powerful _____ dynasty came to an end with the conquest of the city by the Elamites, a rival people from southwestern Iran.

• After the fall of Ur to the Elamites, several rival kingdoms struggled for control over Mesopotamia. Among the warring city-states, _____ emerged as a new power in the region.

• The period immediately after the fall of Ur, and including the emergence of _____ in the second millennium BCE, was known as the Old _____ian Period (2004 to 1595 BCE). _____'s rise to prominence was made possible by Hammurabi who, during his reign from 1792 to 1750 BCE, united the warring factions in southern and central Mesopotamia.

• _____ followed a strategy of military conquest and diplomacy in subduing his enemies, and he placed all conquered territories under his firm control.

• _____ is remembered in history for the code of laws he promulgated throughout the Babylonian Empire.

• The _____ was discovered in 1901 in Iran, engraved on a black basalt stele or pillar. The top portion of the stone shows a representation of Hammurabi receiving the laws of Shamash, god of the sun and giver of justice.
• The inscriptions that cover the remaining portions of the stele details a code of law composed of 283 clauses, covering a variety of topics, from the settlement of debts to punishment for adultery.

• After _____'s death in 1750 BCE, the Babylonian empire went into a period of decline. Rebellion and fighting among the various city-states resulted in the destruction of several cities, among them the oncepowerful city of Ur.

• The Hittite Empire emerged in the Near East as a powerful kingdom during the reign of _____.

• He forged alliances with other city- states, and kingdoms and embarked on military conquests in Anatolia and Syria. The empire declined around 1500 BCE due to disputes over succession to the throne, a series of weak rulers, and territorial losses.

• The empire, however, recovered in 1400 BCE when _____ strengthened the monarchy, renewed its military conquests in Syria and Anatolia, and gained control of trade routes and mineral resources in the Near East.

• The kingdom of _____, formerly a subject of Babylon, gained power during the 13th century BCE.
• The _____ns established an empire that experienced several periods of decline and revival. At around 900 BCE, the _____ns once again rose to power, expanding under successive regimes.

• Among the famous Assyrian rulers were _____, who conquered Israel at around 700 BCE;

_____, Sargon's son, who conquered Babylon in 689 BCE;

_____, who brought the empire to its greatest extent in terms of territory at around 646 BCE.

• The _____n Empire was noted for the magnificent royal palaces built in the capital cities throughout its rule. At the height of its power, _____ was ruled from the city of Nineveh.

• The royal palace of Nineveh, its surrounding gardens and orchards, and the complicated irrigation system constructed to water them, became legendary throughout the Near East.
• The gardens of Nineveh were thought to be the _____, which were described in ancient accounts as one of the Ancient Wonders of the World.

• _____'s death in 627 BCE resulted in several civil wars that eventually led to the collapse of the Assyrian empire.
• The fall of Assyria resulted in the revival of Babylon and the establishment of a new Babylonian empire under the Chaldean dynasty.

• This was the New Babylonian or Chaldean Empire from 612 to 539 BCE. The reign of _____, from 605 to 531 BCE, saw Babylon successfully reclaiming its former imperial glory.
• Most of the former territories of the Old Babylonian Empire were conquered by the Chaldeans. Most famous of _____'s conquests was the capture and sacking of Jerusalem in 386 BCE. The Temple of Jerusalem was looted, and thousands of Jews were held as captives.

Nebuchadnezzar also sought to revive the glory of the _____ian empire. He rebuilt _____ as a capital worthy of a great empire. The ruins of _____ are testament to the scale of the construction and the skill with which this was achieved.

• The most astounding of the structures of the city was the famous _____, which was richly decorated with blue-glazed bricks adorned with relief figures of lions and bulls. The gate was part of the inner walls of the city which led to the great Temple of Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, and the ziggurat.

• The Mesopotamians exhibited a high level of mathematical knowledge, introducing the _____ that uses sixty as its base.
• This system has led to the modern convention of dividing time in units of sixty: 60 seconds to a minute, and 60 minutes to an hour. This system is also the basis of the angular measure of degree, and the 360-degree measure of a circle.

• During the 6th century BCE, four major kingdoms actively sought dominance in the Near East: Lydia, Media, Egypt, and Babylon.
• Under the leadership of _____, the Persians defeated Babylon in 539 BCE, and Lydia in 546 BCE. _____ became the first ruler of the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire. By the time of _____' death in 530 BCE, the Persian Empire extended from Asia Minor up to the Indus Valley.

• The empire reached its greatest expansion, conquering Thrace and Macedon, and invading Scythia and Greece in Europe.

• During this time, the Persian capital of _____ was built. The city embodied the significant aspects of Achaemenid's rule.

• One notable monument within Persepolis was the _____, a great hallway which symbolized all the subject peoples of the empire.
• The entrance was guarded by great statues called lamassus-winged bulls with the heads of bearded men-which symbolized the power of the empire.

• The Achaemenid rulers sought to perfect the system of ruling an empire. They divided their vast territory into provinces called _____ies, each under the authority of a governor or _____.

• The _____s were representatives of the king and ruled in his name. The _____s were tasked with maintaining peace and order within their respective _____ies, overseeing the bureaucracy, collecting tributes, and rendering final judgment on any case brought before them.

• Large _____ies were often divided into smaller districts for easier administration. An official from the royal court, known as "the eye of the King," conducted regular inspections of the _____ies to ensure proper governance throughout the empire.

• An important development during the reign of the Achaemenids was the introduction of _____. The new religion simplified the pantheon of the old gods of Mesopotamia and introduced the concept of two great opposing forces: the spirit of enlightening wisdom, Ahura Mazda, and the destructive spirit, Angra Mainyu or Ahriman.
• _____ gained popularity throughout the empire and became the official religion of the state. Other religions, however, were freely practiced. In their pronouncements, the emperors often invoked Ahura Mazda along with other popular deities of the region.

• Darius died in 486 BCE, after the Persian Army was repelled by the Greek city-states during the First Persian War. He left behind an important historical artifact, the _____, which is a monumental account of his reign.

• It was inscribed on a rock face of Mount Behistun in western Iran, along a busy trade route between the regions of Babylon and Media. The inscription was written in cuneiform in three languages- Elamite, Babylonian, and Persian.

• The _____ is a geographical and cultural region located at the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, between Anatolia and Egypt. This region roughly corresponds to the modern day states of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, and parts of southern Turkey.
• Archaeological evidence from the early settlements of Jericho and Çatalhöyük show that the _____ was occupied by humans as far back as the Neolithic times.

• The development of the region relied largely on the political and cultural climate in Mesopotamia. Whenever Mesopotamian empires became weak, the people of the Levant were able to achieve a certain degree of progress.

• They were caught between the competing kingdoms of Mesopotamia and Egypt. However, some of these groups, such as the _____s and the Hyksos, gained enough power and influence that they were able to compete with, and even conquer, some of the leading kingdoms of the Near East, particularly Babylon and Egypt.

• The developments in the Levant mirrored the changes occuring in Mesopotamia. At around 2500 BCE, various city states emerged throughout Anatolia. From these city states, the _____s emerged as a dominant force in Anatolia around 1600 BCE. They eventually invaded Babylon in 1595 BCE. Despite its wide reach, the _____ empire was centered in Hattusa in Anatolia.

• The _____ rulers had to establish their rule in the face of dissent from the Anatolian people under their power, and attack from aggressive neighbors. The _____ empire eventually declined with the emergence of the Assyrian empire in 1300 BCE.

• The _____ reached prominence in central Anatolia after the fall of the Hittites. They reached the height of power in the 8th century BCE under the rule of Midas.

• This kingdom came under the control of the _____ of western Anatolia during the 6th century BCE.
• The _____ were famous for their vast resources because their capital, Sardis, was situated near gold mines.
• The exploitation of these resources benefited the kingdom, and Lydia became an important economic and political force in the Near East during the 7th century BCE.

• The most well-known Lydian was _____, who reigned from 560 to 546 BCE. The Lydians' greatest contribution to history was the introduction of coinage. The earliest coins minted were made of a naturally occuring alloy of gold and silver, called electrum.
• The Lydians improved their coin making by devising a method to separate gold and silver from electrum.
• _____ undertook a campaign to conquer the Persian Empire in 547 BCE, but he was defeated in battle

• A major development in the Levant occurred in 2000 BCE, with the arrival of the mysterious _____.

• The origin of these people was largely unknown; though many believed they came from a region in the Aegean Sea and were possibly related to the early Greek or Italian peoples.

• Their arrival coincided with a series of catastrophic collapses of ancient kingdoms throughout the Levant at the end of the Bronze Age.

• The _____s were credited with the introduction of iron technology to the communities in the Levant. The use of iron was an important innovation that signaled the beginning of a new age of humankind.
• The transition from bronze technology to iron was a gradual process that was believed to have happened from 2000 to 1000 BCE.

• At around 1000 BCE, the _____s became prominent in the region. By 900 BCE, they established the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, and introduced a monotheistic religion which became the basis for the three great religions of the world Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

• The accounts of the earliest tribes and kingdoms of the _____s formed the major part of the Old Testament in the Christian Bible, the Torah of the Jewish tradition, and the Qur'an of the Muslims.

• As Israelite kingdoms emerged in the Levant, another group of people, the _____s, gained prominence in regional trade. Various _____ settlements were established along the coast of Lebanon, the most noted of which were the cities of Tyre and Sidon.
• The _____s were expert seafarers and traders, and in 800 BCE, they established several settlements around the coastal regions of the Mediterranean in Northern Africa, Spain, and the island of Sicily.

• The _____s were known for introducing a writing system which gained wide acceptance throughout the Near East and the Mediterranean.
• The _____ alphabet was sound-based and easier to use than the earlier cuneiform, where symbols represented ideas.
• The _____ alphabet was assimilated into several languages and scripts, and gave rise to the modern alphabet and its variants which are widely used throughout the modern world.

• The ancient Egyptian civilization was called the "_____" by the Greek historian, Hecataeus of Miletus, who visited the Nile River in 500 BCE.

• Among the ancient civilizations of the world, the Egyptians have had great success in incorporating the _____ into their culture and their lives. For the ancient Egyptians, the _____ was revered as the source of all life.

• The inundation of the _____ was central in the life of ancient Egyptians. In fact, their calendar was divided into three seasons starting with the flooding of the _____, followed by a season of growing, and ending with a season of drought.

• The _____ River was also an important factor in the early achievement of national unity, providing not only sustenance, but also a means of transportation and communication for the communities along its banks.

• This relationship was made possible by the success with which the ancient Egyptians adapted to and mastered the unique qualities of the _____ River. They were able to accurately predict when the river would flood, an event that both benefited and harmed the ancient communities along the riverbank.

• The annual flooding of the _____ deposited fertile sediments in the land; on the other hand, the sudden surge of the _____ often swept everything on its path.

• It went as far back as the emergence of simple farming communities along the river in 5000 BCE. At around 4000 BCE, these small communities began to engage in trade.
• The relationship between these communities was competitive, and a number of them gained influence through the control of resources and trade along the Nile.

Over the next thousand years, these simple settlements developed into chiefdoms which in turn developed into the kingdoms of Upper _____ and Lower _____. By the end of 4000 BCE, the Nile region was thriving with about half a million people living along its banks.
• Three cities also emerged as centers of power in the region: Abydos and Nekhen in Upper _____, and Memphis in Lower _____.

• The kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt struggled for power, but were eventually united under a sole leader, the _____. The first _____s of Egypt, however, were shrouded in mystery.
• Though their names have yet to be known to history, these ancient rulers were depicted in several relics and sites, such as the royal cemeteries of Abydos, and the Narmer Palette, which was found in Nekhen.

Tradition holds that the pharoah t was the unifier of Egypt. However, archaeological studies cast doubt on the historical Menes, and many historians now associate Menes with either the pharoahs Narmer, or Horus Aha. These three pharoahs are considered as the probable unifiers of the Kingdom of Egypt.

• It was a period of consolidation and unification. The first pharaoh recorded in history, _____, became ruler of a truly unified Egypt in 3100 BCE.
• During the reign of the pharaohs from the First to the Second Dynasty, several developments transformed Egyptian society and laid the foundation for its advanced civilization in later centuries.

• _____ among kingdoms were often settled by diplomacy, while those that continued to resist or rebel were savagely put down. The establishment of a powerful, central administration was aided by the development of a bureaucracy.

• Originally, the king's followers were the ones who ran his household. As the task of governance grew complicated, _____ were appointed to administer the treasuries and granaries, and perform other important tasks, such as the collection of taxes and accounting. These _____, apart from handling the day-to-day affairs of state, advised the pharaoh on important issues of governance.

• Only _____ and learned men were admitted into government service. Thus, literacy became an important luxury and was only given to a chosen minority. The profession of a scribe was much sought after and provided the greatest opportunity to advance in society.

• The first evidence of _____ was seen in markings on pieces of pottery. From these simple markings, a uniform system of _____ was developed which greatly aided the priests and scribes in their record-keeping.
• The _____ of ancient Egypt was composed of several scripts and the most well-known was the script used for formal and religious purposes, and carved on the walls of temples, monuments, and tombs.

These _____, believed to have developed in the latter part of the Archaic Period, during the Second Dynasty, were simpler cursive styles used when writing on papyrus, which are pieces of parchment made from the papyrus reeds growing on the Nile.

• The Egyptian hieroglyphs fascinated archaeologists and scholars for several years. The discovery of the _____ in 1799 CE was an important step toward deciphering the ancient writings of the Egyptians.

• Using the Rosetta Stone as a guide, the French scholar _____, was able to translate the hieroglyphic symbols using the accompanying Ancient Greek text to decipher the demotic and hieroglyph scripts on the stone.

• Champollion correctly showed that the Egyptian hieroglyphs were a combination of _____ (soundbased) and ideographic (symbolic) signs. Inscribed on the Rosetta Stone was a decree from Ptolemy V issued in 196 BCE, granting tax exemption to the priests and establishing a cult of worship for the king.
• This decree was issued during a particularly turbulent time in Egypt and was considered by historians as an attempt to gain the support of the priestly class.

• The pharaohs considered themselves representatives of the gods on earth. Specifically, they were the embodiment of the sky god _____.
• Incorporating the mythology of gods into the person of the pharaoh, served an important purpose. It established the legitimacy of the ruler as sovereign over all the lands and ensured the continuity of his dynasty through his successors.

• Upon death, the pharaoh was believed to become one with _____, the god of the underworld. The new pharaoh was then considered a new incarnation of Horus on earth.
• This concept of the pharaoh as a divine figure was closely tied with the Egyptian concept of the afterlife. The ruler's immortality was dependent on the preservation of his remains as his soul journeyed through the afterlife.

• _____ was developed and became a distinct and specialized profession. The _____ of the deceased was surrounded by ritual, reflecting the belief of ancient Egyptians in the relationship between the soul and the body.

• For them, a person's successful journey through the afterlife and his entry into paradise, was dependent on the preservation of his earthly remains, as the soul continued to gain nourishment from the preserved body through continued offerings of food and drink.

• The pharaohs of the Archaic Period built a complex of tombs called _____. Within the chambers of the royal tombs were funeral goods that ensured the continued comfort of the pharaoh in the afterlife.
• The walls and the tomb were richly decorated and contained inscriptions depicting the life of the ruler and his journey through the afterlife.

The _____ is a funerary text containing spells that aided the departed as he journeyed through the afterlife. It also contains descriptions of the afterlife and is an invaluable source in the study of the ancient Egyptians’ belief in the afterlife.

• The _____ of rulers ushered in the Old Kingdom Period, from 2680 to 2134 BCE. There were further improvements in the concept of the state and the pharaohs were at the height of their power and were considered benevolent rulers.

• The most iconic representation of ancient Egyptian civilization, the _____s, appeared during this period. The _____s symbolized the connection between the ruler and the rising sun.
Earliest of these grand structures was the Step _____ of Djoser in Saqqara. The _____ stands at 60 meters and is composed of six diminishing levels.
• The construction of the ____s was an Indication of the high regard and devotion given to the pharaoh and the efficiency with which the government devoted the energies of communities for public projects. It was also a testament to the great efficiency and expertise of ancient Egyptians in architecture and engineering.
• Ancient Egyptians possessed advanced scientific knowledge and technology. Their studies in mathematics were revealed in a number of papyrus scrolls detailing mathematical concepts and problems, revealing that they had knowledge regarding arithmetic, algebra, and geometry.

• The Egyptians also concerned themselves with _____. The temples served as observatories where ancient astronomers were able to chart the movement of heavenly bodies.
• The Egyptians focused on charting the sun's movement across the sky. Based on their astronomical observations, they were able to develop a 365-day calendar, which guided them in determining important rituals and ceremonies.

• Succeeding pharaohs of the Old Kingdom built their own _____, improving the initial step _____ design into the "true" _____ shape.
• The _____s of Giza were the grandest and most famous of the many _____s built during the Old Kingdom

• The pharaoh Khafre, Khufu's son, constructed the second pyramid at Giza at around 2494 BCE.
• Khafre was also said to have constructed the statue of the _____, which featured his likeness on the mythical beast. The smallest pyramid was constructed for Menkaure, Khafre's successor.

• The _____ of Egypt was the first great age of Egyptian civilization. Egypt at this time had established trade relations with other kingdoms in the Levant and Africa, and was an influential political force in the Near East.
• The end of the _____ Period was a period of turmoil brought about by a series of prolonged droughts at around 2250 BCE. The cycle of droughts persisted for several centuries and led to the weakened power of the pharaoh.

• During the _____, from 2134 to 2040 BCE, local leaders, called nomarchs, became independent of the central authority of the state. Egypt became a land of competing kingdoms, and economic and cultural progress was halted for more than a century.

• Egypt became united once again in 2040 BCE, when the Theban ruler _____ conquered the rival kingdoms and placed Egypt under his control.

• His ascension as pharaoh marked the beginning of The _____ (2040 to 1782 BCE). The first few years of the reestablished kingdom were challenging, as local leaders and a number of officials vied for power.
• However, the authority and power of the pharaoh prevailed. The rulers of Egypt concerned themselves with maintaining the security of their kingdom and consolidating its borders.

The _____ is a creature from Greek mythology with the body of a lion, the head of a woman, and the wings of an eagle. The origins of the Great _____ of Giza are a subject of debate among historians. Though majority credit Khafre for its construction, other experts believe that the statues had a much earlier history.

• The weakness of the Egyptian kingdoms was explained by a group of foreign people, the _____, as they took control of Lower Egypt at around 1630 BCE. The _____ were an Asiati people from the Levant who invaded the delta region of the Lower Nile and placed the Egyptians under their rule.

• The time of Hyksos domination was known as the _____ (1640 to 1550 BCE). A number of dynasties were established by the Hyksos which placed several local Egyptian rulers under their authority. They adopted the religious and political traditions of Egypt, but also introduced innovations and new ideas into Egyptian society, such as advanced bronze technology, improved weaponry, and the use of the horse drawn chariot in battle.

• Among the Egyptian kingdoms, _____, was foremost among the cities in the Upper Nile Region that resisted foreign invaders. _____ led the effort of the kingdoms of Upper Egypt to dislodge the Hyksos and retake Lower Egypt. In 1550 BCE, the Egyptians mounted an assault against the Hyksos.

• The Theban ruler, _____, was able to capture the Hyksos capital of Avaris after a long and bloody siege. Determined to secure the frontiers of Egypt from future attacks, they chased the Hyksos up to as far as Syria. The successful eviction of the Hyksos restored Egypt as an imperial power and an influential political force in the Near East. This revival marked the start of the New Kingdom Period (1550 to 1070 BCE).

• Egypt's influence spread far and wide throughout the Near East, with evidence suggesting that the empire had established relations with the far-away Minoan civilization in the island of Crete. The former Hyksos capital of _____, which Ahmose rebuilt as a fortress to guard against future incursions from the uplands, featured palaces with wall paintings done in the distinctive Minoan style.

• _____ became an important trading center, linking Egypt with the vibrant kingdom of the Near East. By the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE, Egypt was part of a regional economy that linked the islands of the Mediterranean and the kingdoms of the Fertile Crescent in a vast, interconnected network of trade and commerce.

_____ (modern-day Luxor), the imperial capital, became the political, cultural, and religious center of the realm.

It was during the New Kingdom that the cult of the god _____ gained popularity. The Temple of Amun at Karnak represented the public nature of religious ritual, as the temples were vast and had wide, open spaces for public ceremonies and processions. _____ was considered the "king of the gods," and was the divine father figure of the pharaohs.

• The religious ceremonies and festivals at Thebes were great pageants that showcased the close relationship between the gods and the pharaoh. And like the previous pharaohs before them, the rulers of the New Kingdom also concerned themselves with the afterlife, building impressive underground tombs in a vast burial complex, known as the _____.

• _____ decided to replace the divine order instituted by the earlier rulers of the New Kingdom with his own unique theology. Amun- Ra was no longer the foremost among the gods; it was now the Great Disk of the Sun, Aten.

• _____ established a new capital, Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna), in an area that was not associated with any established deity. In the new capital, monuments were erected in Aten's honor, while worshiping of the other Egyptian gods was ignored.

• The artworks during the time of _____'s reign revealed that the pharaoh regarded himself and his family as representatives of Aten, tasked to mediate between god and humanity.

• The art of this time also showed an interesting side of the royal family. Unlike the previous pharaohs with their imposing figures and statues, _____, his wife Nefertiti, and his children were shown in a realistic style and often portrayed in informal situations

• During the reign of Akhenaten's son, _____, who succeeded to the throne in 1332 BCE at the young age of 8 years old, the court officials brought back the cults of the old Egyptian gods and sought to erase Akhenaten from historical records.

• _____, despite his relatively short age of 18 years would be among the most celebrated and widely-known pharaohs of the New Kingdom.

• The discovery of his tomb in the Valley of the Kings in 1922 revealed a rich and undisturbed burial chamber which featured the treasures that accompanied the pharaoh in the afterlife.

• The discovery of _____’s tomb in 1922 by the English archaeologist, Howard Carter, revealed the grandeur of the Pharaoh’s burial chamber and contributed greatly to an understanding of the ancient Egyptian’s concern with the afterlife.

• King Tut sparked the interest and imagination of historians and writers, owing to the controversy and mystery of his parentage, reign, and untimely death.

• _____ was known as the greatest and most renowned of all the pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty. He ruled Egypt for 66 years from 1279 to 1213 BCE, the longest for any ruler.
• He was also credited for bringing peace and stability to the empire and restoring Egypt's status as a regional power in the Near East.
• _____ conquered the Nubians and engaged the Hittites in battle, extending Egyptian influence into the Levant, the southeast regions of Africa, and even North Africa.
• The city of Pi-Ramesses and the Ramesseum, the pharaoh's burial complex near Thebes, were grand testaments to the architectural skill of ancient Egyptian builders, as massive temples and statues known as colossi dotted the landscape.
• The Temple of Abu Simbel in the upper region of the Nile in Nubia, was built as a statement of political power and illustrated the reach of the pharaoh along the Nile River.

• The end of _____'s reign in 1213 BCE, ushered in the period of the gradual decline of Egypt. The influence of the oncegreat empire diminished, royal authority declined, and the kingdom was afflicted by corruption in the government and rebellion from the cities and communities of the Nile.
• The once revered tombs of the pharaohs fell prey to grave robbers eager to pillage the temples and burial chambers of their treasures. About 150 years after the death of _____, the New Kingdom fell apart.

• The regions of the Nile beyond Upper Egypt was known in ancient times as _____, believed to have been coined from the Egyptian word for gold-neweb. Despite the harsh and desolate terrain of the region, _____ was rich in minerals, primarily precious metals.

• The communities of dark-skinned people within the semi-arid grasslands of this region took advantage of the Nile and relied largely on trade with Egypt to build their kingdoms. Egypt had close economic and political ties with the kingdoms of _____, and much of what we know about the _____ns is based on Egyptian records.

• The early development in _____ reflected the initial developments in Egypt. Despite the generally harsh landscape of the region, the Nile River was a source of sustenance for the earliest communities.

• At around 3500 BCE, sedentary farming communities flourished along the Middle Nile. Soon after, _____ns were trading resources, such as precious metals, minerals, and exotic products such as ivory.

• The region became economically significant, and the Old Kingdom of Egypt sent armies to secure its southern borders in _____.

• The Middle Kingdom continued the expansion of Egyptian influence in _____, building a series of forts to guard key trade routes along the Nile.

• In 1535 BCE, _____, annexed Nubia, exploiting its resources in building the New Kingdom of Egypt.

• The earliest of these African kingdoms was _____. The rulers of _____ often took advantage of periods of Egyptian decline and extended their influence into the borders of Upper Egypt. When the Hyksos occupied Egypt in the Second Intermediate Period, the kingdom of _____ prospered.

• The Kushite capital of _____ (modern- day Sudan), reached its height at around 1570 BCE with a population of between 2000 to 3000 inhabitants.

• The monumental temples of Kerma, the _____, embodied the fusion of Egyptian and African traditions. Kush exploited its strategic location, enriching itself through the lucrative trade of gold and other resources, with the desert communities beyond the Nile River, and even the Hyksos in Upper Egypt.

• Another important center of development in Nubia was the city of _____, which was believed to be an important Kushite city, before it emerged as a powerful kingdom in East Africa around 300 BCE.
• _____ was rich in natural resources, and the kingdom established a trading monopoly in East Africa that flourished even into the period of the Roman Empire.
• The people of _____ were greatly influenced by Egyptian culture: they worshipped the Egyptian gods, built pyramids in their burial sites, and adopted a writing system similar to Egyptian hieroglyphs. Archaeological evidence revealed that the society of _____ was matrilineal, and that their civilization was ruled by powerful queens.

• Meroe was conquered by the _____, a region of the Horn of Africa at the mouth of the Red Sea. The strategic location of _____ enabled it to play an important role in trading with Asia.
• _____ emerged in historical records at around the 1st century CE, as a major trading center along the Indian Ocean trade route.
• For seven centuries, _____ served as a major gateway between Asia and the Mediterranean. At its height, _____ occupied the territory that is now the modern states of Eritrea, Ethiopia, and portions of Western Arabia.

• King Ezana of Aksum embraced _____, and the religion spread throughout the kingdom. Aksum persisted until the era of the Byzantine Empire and the emergence of Islam in Arabia.
• From 700 to 800 CE, a rivalry developed between Aksum and the Islamic states over trading along the Red Sea. In 702 CE, the Aksumites attacked the Islamic harbor of Jeddah. The Muslims exacted a terrible revenge on Aksum, plunging it into a period of economic isolation and decline.

• The _____ emerged at around 830 CE, in Southwestern Mauritania and Western Mali. The wealth of the empire was gained from the lucrative trade in gold, ivory, and salt across the Sahara region. Arab travelers and historians spoke of the wealth of Ghana and the skill of their warriors.
• The trade in gold paved the way for increased contact between Ghana and North African merchants, and the empire reached its height during the 1st century CE. The empire fell at around 1076 CE, due to foreign invasion, which disrupted local trade and agriculture.

• The _____ achieved prominence at around 1230 CE, replacing the earlier Ghana Empire and greatly expanding its influence throughout Western Africa. It relied mostly on the lucrative trade in gold, copper, and salt.
• At the height of its power, the _____ included the modern states of Gambia, Senegal, Mali, parts of Guinea, Burkina Faso, and Niger.
• Most renowned of its cities was Timbuktu. The city was both a religious and trading center, drawing Muslim scholars due to its open attitude to foreigners. Most notable of its structures, were the royal palace and Great Mosque.

• In 1468 CE _____, a vassal state of the Mali Empire, defeated the weakened empire and established itself as a political and economic force in Western Africa.
• In 1590 CE, the kingdom of Morocco sent an army to _____ and successfully conquered it. The collapse of _____ disrupted trade routes across the Sahara, and shifted political power to the coastal regions of West Africa.

• For about a century after the fall of Songhai, small kingdoms emerged around West Africa. In 1670 CE, these small kingdoms were united into a confederation by, _____. The union of these small African states created the, Ashanti Kingdom, with _____ as the first king.

• A unique aspect of Ashanti culture was the _____, a sacred artifact, said to contain the essence of the Ashanti nation. The Ashanti were able to successfully resist European expansion in Africa throughout the 19th century, finally falling to the forces of the British Empire in 1901 CE.

• During the early history of Central and South Africa, a group known as the _____, spread throughout the regions.

• The _____ are a diverse group of people who speak a common language, also called _____. Groups of _____ people established several communities throughout Central and Southern Africa at around 500 BCE.

• This led to the establishment of several communities between 500 BCE and 300 CE.

• A number of powerful kingdoms emerged in Central Africa around 1000 CE. The earliest of these Central African kingdoms, was _____, which was established around 1390 CE in what is now the modern state of Angola.

In 1585 CE, the _____, Kingdom was founded by King Kongolo Mwamba

• A Bantu-speaking people, established a powerful state located around Lake Upemba in Central Africa. Another powerful kingdom, the _____, emerged almost a century after the establishment of the Luba Kingdom.

• At around 1000 CE, Bantu settlements prospered in Southeast Africa, on the fertile region between the Zambeze and Limpopo Rivers.

• A great Bantu kingdom built stone fortifications, most famous of which was The _____, a ruined city which covered an area of about eight square kilometers, and was built between 1100 and 1450 CE.

• The most prominent feature of this ancient city was its massive fortifications, with walls about five meters in height. The Kingdom of Zimbabwe was considered the most prominent pre colonial civilization in Southern Africa.