• _____ civilization flourished through trade with the Greeks and Phoenicians, and soon expanded their influence within Italy. The _____ns conquered several neighboring cities, including the early Latin settlement of Rome.

• At the height of the Etruscan civilization, Rome was a small settlement established by Latin tribes along the Tiber River. Tradition holds that the city of Rome was founded in 753 BCE by the twin brothers _____, descendants of the legendary Trojan hero Aeneas.

• The _____s were noted for their ornate gilder burial chambers. _____ art often depicted the elite of their society in scenes from everyday life, and their architecture was greatly influenced by Greek styles.

• A significant cultural influence of the Etruscans on the Romans was the practice of _____, the act of predicting the future by reading signs from the heavens or the entrails of sacrificed animals.

Another influence attributed to the Etruscans was the _____, a bundle of rods and axes which symbolized the power of the state. The civilization of the Etruscans persisted until 273 BCE, when it was conquered by the Romans.

• The Roman Republic was founded at around 509 BCE, after the Romans expelled the last Etruscan monarch, _____ (Tarquin the Proud). A new Roman constitution was set in place, which established the basic elements of the Roman state.

The new Roman government was called a t (res publica, or "the public realm"), which was a contrast to the rule of the Etruscan monarchs, who considered the state as their own private realm.

• The establishment of the Roman Republic was the interaction between two important social groups: the _____ (the society's elite and aristocrats)

and the _____ (the working citizens).

The _____ took over the reins of the government after the fall of the monarchy, gaining dominance in the government’s two important institutions-the assembly and the senate.

The assembly was originally composed of the top officials of the armies (_____), while the senate was a council composed of the leading clans and served as an advisor to the previous monarchs.

The assembly elected public officials called _____, who were tasked with administering the law and leading the armies.

The assembly also elected public administrators called _____, who managed the finances of the republic. These officials selected among themselves two who became the leading authorities in the republic, presided over the senate, proposed laws, and the armies.

These two officials were known as the _____, and served for one year. The reign of the _____ and the praetors were characterized by collegiality – refering to a rule by the consensus of the majority.
It was intended to avoid the possibility of a practor or consul gaining too much influence or power in government.

• Another assembly was organized by the plebeians and was called the _____ or the Plebeian Council.

Within this Council, the plebeians elected _____, representatives of the common people in the government,

and _____, who were public works administrators.

The _____ were given significant powers as they were considered the common people's guardian in the face of abuses among the patricians.

The _____ pledged allegiance to their tribunes, and vowed to exact vengeance on any who dared kill, injure, or impede a tribune in his duties.

The t and aediles functioned independently of the patricians, but often intervened in government affairs on behalf of the plebeians.

The tribunes, in particular, could oppose the actions and decisions of the magistrates through their _____.

The emergence of the _____ served to counter the power of the patricians, but it took a considerable period of time before these two seemingly opposing forces in society could balance their interests and work together.

• _____s (the citizens of the city of Rome) were considered full citizens. _____ women, however, were not given the right to vote or hold public office. As the _____ Republic expanded its territories and assumed authority over other groups of people, more distinctions on citizenship emerged.
• The most basic of rights, such as the right to trial, marriage, or to engage in commerce, were given to the citizens of the _____ provinces. Later developments in the _____ Empire resulted in the extension of full citizenship to all free citizens at around 212 CE

The establishment of the Roman Republic was the enactment of the first Roman legal code, the _____, to address a number of plebeian concerns.

These initial sets of laws established the rights and duties of citizens, and also defined legal transactions, crimes, and their respective penalties. It ensured the application of the law to all citizens, and became a deterrent to abusive officials who often defined the law to their advantage.

n 493 BCE, Rome entered into a treaty with the _____, a confederation of Latin city-states in central Italy.
The relationship between the Romans and their Latin neighbors was characterized by frequent migrations, intermarriages, and close cultural ties. Despite these ties, the kingdoms and cities of Italy often vied with one another for control of the region.

The _____s in the northern regions of Italy was also a significant threat, as evidenced by their defeat of the Roman army and subsequent sack of the city of Rome in 390 BCE.

The growing power of Rome led to friction with the _____ League and the neighboring _____ cities soon waged war with Rome.
The Roman victory over the _____s in 338 BCE ended the league and established the authority of Rome over the _____ territories.
The success of the Roman military campaigns was due to a number of factors: its strong and efficient army, the clever use of diplomacy, and the effective use of the _____ road system for quick transport and communication.

The _____ was an important instrument in the expansion of Rome. Its organization reflected the unique arrangement of Roman society.

The _____ occupied the higher command

_____ composed the troops and lower-ranking officers

The Romans improved upon the _____ formation, and established smaller, more mobile units of soldiers

A standard unit of the Roman army was the _____ (Latin: centuria) which was composed of around 100 soldiers. The army soon expanded into cavalry and infantry units organized into legions.

The _____s soon acquired a great degree of professionalism and organization that turned them into a powerful military machine, that greatly aided the expansion of the republic and the defense of its territories.

With each succeeding victory, _____ influence gradually expanded,and Rome steadily absorbed its neighbors into its sphere. The road system was extended and colonies were established in the conquered lands.

The campaign of expansion continued and by the 3rd century BCE, the lands of central and eastern Italy were under Roman control. In a series of battles from 280 to 275 BCE, the Romans defeated a Greek army led by _____ of Epirus, and southern Italy came under the control of the Romans.

In 225 BCE, a decisive victory over the _____s gave the Romans an opportunity to expand into northern Italy.

The _____s had long maintained an extensive trading network which linked Europe, the Near East, and North Africa.

_____ was the most powerful of the Phoenician cities and enjoyed a monopoly over several trade routes across the Mediterranean.

The rivalry between Rome and Carthage eventually erupted into a series of wars known as the Punic Wars. In the _____ (264 to 241 BCE), Rome and Carthage fought for control over territories in southern Italy and the island of Sicily.

The Carthaginians lost their hold over their territories, and soon after, the islands of _____ and Sardinia also fell under Roman control. Rome also established its presence in the coastlines of Greece after the First Punic War, while the Carthaginians colonized Spain.

The _____ (218 to 201 BCE) saw two military personalities distinguish themselves in the battlefield.

The Carthaginian general, _____, embarked on an ambitious land campaign and launched from Spain.
_____'s army of around 100,000 infantry and cavalry, including war elephants, marched over the Pyrenees and the Alps into Italy. The Carthaginian army successfully defeated the forces deployed by Rome and surrounded the city.

The Romans, meanwhile, were victorious on other fronts. While Hannibal had Rome besieged, the Roman general, _____, successfully dislodged the Cathaginians from Spain in 205 BCE. He then led the Romans into North Africa, forcing Hannibal to withdraw his forces from Italy.

The Carthaginians were finally defeated in 202 BCE at the _____. The expertly trained and coordinated Roman forces were able to defeat the heavily armed Carthaginian infantry, with Scipio even managing to counter an initial charge of war elephants.

The Carthaginians negotiated for peace, and the Romans exacted harsh terms from their defeated rival. _____ was made to pay a war indemnity, its naval force was reduced, and its army was disbanded.

With _____ subdued, Rome became the sole military and naval power in the Mediterranean, gaining territories in Spain, northern Italy, and Africa.

Soon after defeating _____, Rome then began to expand into the eastern regions of the Mediterranean. Rome waged war with Macedonia, who had sided with _____ during the Second Punic War and defeated it in 197 BCE. Rome then brought the Greek city-states under its control.
In 190 BCE Roman forces defeated the king of Syria, and Roman influence further expanded to Asia Minor. Rome eventually annexed Macedonia and Greece in 146 BCE.

That same year, North Africa became a Roman province after the destruction of Carthage during the _____. By the end of the 2nd century BCE, Rome had become the sole dominant power throughout the Mediterranean.

_____'s overseas provinces included Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Macedonia, North Africa, and Spain.

The kingdoms of Syria and Egypt, and the city-states of Rhodes and Pergamon remained independent but recognized the authority of _____.

Rome's emergence as the primary regional power in the Mediterranean during the 2nd century BCE gave way to a period of prosperity. The road system was expanded, and the newly conquered territories yielded large tracts of land for _____.

The city of Rome experienced an increase in _____ projects. Public buildings, fora, temples, and palaces were built throughout the city.

The construction of aqueducts and bridges showed the engineering skill of Roman _____, who used concrete extensively in their infrastructure.

The _____ were a significant fixture in the ancient city of Rome, bringing much needed freshwater to the steadily increasing population.

Roman _____ were made of stone and concrete and employed the arch in its basic structure. As the Romans expanded their territories, these distinctly Roman structures soon began to appear throughout the Mediterranean.

The vastly expanded _____ sphere of influence had important effects on _____ society and government. The senate gained greater influence and authority after the Punic Wars.

In politics, the political success of _____ depended not only on their capacity for public service, but also on the ability to build alliances with other influential families.

The complex system of patronage and overlapping interests among the various social groups in Roman _____, however, made the republic prone to corruption and political infighting. Despite these challenges, Rome managed to maintain order within its territories through its formidable military force.

The growing influence of Rome over large parts of the Mediterranean and its acquisition of several foreign provinces set the stage for the emergence of a Roman empire.
The emergence of the political concept called _____, which refers to the power that an official may exercise within his scope of authority, was an important political development.
Members of the senate were assigned varying degrees of _____ based on their rank.
In line with the concept of collegiality, the actions of a senator or official could only be limited or opposed by a fellow senator of equal or greater _____. Thus, in the city of Rome, no senator or official could gain power above that of his colleagues.

The situation, however, was different in the provinces, where the provincial governor often functioned independent of the capital.
The governor exercised _____ over his province quite freely and gained both civil and military authority.
The changes in Roman society during the 2nd century BCE challenged the old tradition of the republican government. The increased demands on and challenges to the Senate, came from various groups, particularly the rural class, soldiers, and non- Roman citizens.

To restore order during times of chaos, the senate elected among themselves one who was designated as _____, who wielded great powers during times of emergencies. These powers surpassed even that of the consuls, but were meant to be used for a limited period only.

When the emergency had passed, the _____ gave up his powers and the republican government would once again prevail.

The troubled times during the later years of the Roman Republic gave rise to several wars and a number of rebellions. Several generals gained distinction for their success in the battlefield.

_____ successfully crushed a slave revolt led by Spartacus in 71 BCE.

ty was able to subjugate the kingdoms around the Black Sea and Asia Minor in 66 BCE, and expanded Roman influence into Judaea.
These generals used their newfound fame and influence among the army and the public in order to advance their careers in the Roman senate.

Crassus and Pompey found an ally in a promising junior senator, Julius _____.
These three were known to historians as the First Triumvirate, who, through skilled political maneuvering, managed to concentrate the powers of the state among themselves.
_____ himself gained distinction in the battlefield, winning a series of wars against the Gauls from 58 to 50 BCE which extended Roman territory into France.

The death of _____ in 55 BCE, during a military campaign in Syria, signaled the end of the Triumvirate, with relations between Pompey and Caesar gradually deteriorating in the succeeding years

• In 50 BCE the senate, under the leadership of Pompey, declared _____ "an enemy of the Republic," stripped him of his governorship of Gaul, and commanded him to appear in person at the Senate to answer charges of insubordination and treason.
• _____, having realized the plot to remove him from power, brought his army into Rome in 49 BCE. _____'s action sparked civil war, and the republic was divided between his supporters and Pompey's allies.

The civil war between the forces of _____ and Pompey lasted from 49 to 45 BCE. _____'s success in the battles against the armies of Pompey coincided with his rise to power in the Roman government.
_____ was appointed dictator and chose Mark Antony, his relative and close ally, as his second in command.

• In 48 BCE, _____ led his forces against Pompey in Greece, defeating the latter in the Battle of Pharsalus.

_____ fled to Egypt, seeking refuge with the reigning Ptolemy dynasty. Before Caesar's forces could arrive in Egypt, however, t was assassinated by the Egyptians.

While in Egypt, Caesar intervened in the civil war in the Ptolemaic Kingdom and installed _____ as the sole ruler of Egypt.

• After removing the last remaining forces opposing his authority, Caesar returned to Rome in 46 BCE. He was once again reelected consul, and during his third term in 45 BCE, Caesar served as sole consul.
• Julius Caesar reached the peak of power in 44 BCE, when he was proclaimed as Dictator for Life by the _____.

His triumphant ascent into the highest offices of the republic, however, was cut short by his assassination. On March 15, 44 BCE, Julius Caesar was attacked and stabbed to death during a session in the _____.

The conspirators were senators who feared that Caesar's rise to power was a sign that the Senate would be overthrown and replaced with a tyranny. Caesar's assassination is considered by many historians as a major turning point in the history of Rome. It signified the end of the _____ and its transformation into an empire.

_____'s death plunged Rome into turmoil, as another civil war raged between the conspirators who plotted _____'s deathled by prominent senators Brutus and Cassius, and _____'s allies led by his deputies Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, who was _____'s adopted son and heir.

• After defeating _____'s murderers, Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian established the Second Triumvirate in 43 BCE.

• The three shared power and established themselves as rulers in different regions controlled by Rome, _____ ruled in Rome and the western territories,

_____ was assigned to Spain and Africa,

and _____ occupied Egypt and the eastern regions.
The tense relationship among the members of the triumvirate resulted in the expulsion and exile of Lepidus in 36 BCE.

_____ then used propaganda to turn the Roman public against Mark Antony, who was in Egypt and living with Cleopatra.

War broke out in 32 BCE when Octavian convinced the senate to declare war against Egypt, forcing Mark Antony to side with Cleopatra.
The forces of Antony and Cleopatra were defeated in the _____ in 31 BCE, and both committed suicide a year later. With the death of Mark Antony and the exile of Lepidus, Octavian now became the sole authority in the Roman Republic.

The Roman senate in 27 BCE granted the titles of _____ (majestic or illustrious)

and _____ (first citizen) to Octavian, and Rome entered a new age in its history.

He also added the term Caesar in his name, and was later known as Augustus Caesar and the ‘firs t c i t i Zen’ of Rome (_____ ).

Historians consider Augustus’s reign as the start of the Roman Empire. His reign ushered in a period of stability, peace, and territorial expansion known as the _____ (Roman Peace).
It was during this period that Rome and its territories gained a high degree of economic and cultural prosperity. The inhabitants of the Roman Empire were highly diverse and varied in language, ethnicity, and culture.
Many of the thriving urban centers of the empire became cultural meltingpots, and important centers of trade and commerce. The imperial capital of Rome exemplified the highlights of Roman civilization and was the center of politics and culture.

The city of Rome itself was a collection of public buildings and areas where large crowds of people converged. The public _____ or forum, was an important venue for Roman citizens, as it served not only as a marketplace, but also an area where meetings, discussions, and even political campaigns were held.
Much of Roman citizens lieves were spent attending public events, whether religious or secular in nature. The most notable of these public spectacles were the chariot races, theatrical performances, and gladiatorial fights.

Apart from providing much needed entertainment and diversion for the public, these events had great political significance as many of them were organized by public officials.

The Circus Maximus and the _____ (popularly known as the Colosseum) were the two important public entertainment venues in the city of Rome.

Apart from Rome, other notable cities of Ancient Rome included the cities of _____ and Herculaneum, which were both buried during the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE.

The remains of these ancient cities provide a glimpse into everyday life in a Roman city.

The development of the _____ became another unifying factor for the diverse population of the empire. Aspects of Greek culture were readily assimilated by the Romans during the early years of the Republic.
The expansion of Roman influence throughout the Mediterranean enabled contact with territories which were formerly part of the Greek and Hellenistic world.
Roman culture emerged during the Pax Romana as a fusion of the elements of ancient Greek civilization with distinct Roman innovations.

The incorporation of _____ elements in Roman culture was most evident in Roman art, literature, and religion. Roman builders adopted the most notable Tgb design aspects in constructing public buildings and temples, but made a number of important innovations.

The development of the arch, dome, and vault were important improvements not only in aesthetics, but also in engineering. Notable structures which attested to the ingenuity of Roman engineering included the t, which is the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world.

_____ echoed the predominant art style of ancient Greece. Most common artworks in the Roman Empire were wall paintings and mosaics which adorned the houses of the elite.

_____ made of marble and bronze adorned temples, public buildings, and squares. Unlike the Greeks, who made idealized figures of legendary heroes and gods, Roman sculpture often portrayed individuals, such as emperors and public officials.

_____, completed in 112 CE, is a freestanding marble column adorned with relief sculptures that commemorated Emperor Trajan's military exploits.

The _____, constructed in 82 CE, celebrated Emperor Titus's triumph in the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE.

The Greek tragedies, Homeric epics, and Greek myths remained popular in Roman society and inspired several Roman writers. The Roman epic t, written by Virgil, was inspired by Homer's Illiad and the Odyssey.

Ovid gained recognition for his book _____, a collection of tales which weaved together elements of Greco-Roman mythology. The Roman literary tradition also featured several histories written during the course of the Republic and the Empire.

• Greek and Latin were the predominant languages of learning. _____ was emphasized and governed.
• _____ emphasized the mastery of classic texts in literature and mastery in public speaking and persuasive speech. However, only the upper classes were able to afford the cost of _____.

Religion and _____ during the Roman Empire were also offshoots of Greek culture. Greek deities were adopted by the Romans and often fused with native Latin gods.

The cosmopolitan nature of the empire resulted in a great variety of religions,

cults, and philosophies practiced throughout the empire.

Roman households worshipped spirits (t) which were the patron deities of specific families. Apart from their household gods, Romans could also choose to participate in the various approved religions and cults. Various deities from the western and eastern regions established cults in the city of Rome.

The most popular of these cults involved the worship of deities, like Cybele, Mithras, Astarte, Isis, and Bacchus. The cult devoted to emperor worship was recognized as an established religion, as many were deified upon Roman emperors' deaths.

_____ was recognized as an established religion, but its practice was restricted among the people of Judaea.

• _____, on the other hand, experienced persecution for several centuries before the introduction of religious toleration during the reign of Emperor Constantine.

• The imperial government exerted a significant influence in the practice of religions by issuing approvals and outlawing some religious practices such as human sacrifice among the people of Gaul and North Africa. The Romans also eradicated druidism from Celtic lands.

• Roman _____ deviated from the Greek model as the Romans were uninterested in the discussion of idealistic notions. The Roman philosophers sought practical answers to important social and moral questions. _____ was often combined with religion in the search for a moral and ethical standard in living one's life.

• Virtue, equality, compassion, and simple living were among the ideals extolled by philosophers.

• Notable Roman philosophers included writers, politicians, and even emperors, namely, Seneca, Plutarch, Cicero, and the Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

• The Romans never considered themselves as being under the rule of an emperor during the reign of _____.
• In fact, there was a concerted effort to retain the image of a republican government despite the reality of _____'s preeminent position in the Roman government.

• This was to avoid any conflict with the Roman senate, similar to what transpired during the time of Julius Caesar. An important factor that ensured the success of _____' reign was his clever management of political affairs.
As the centuries progressed, the office of the emperor became more institutionalized in the Roman government. The image of a republican government, however, continued to be maintained by the emperors.
_____ avoided projecting the image of being a monarch, and his successors continued the tradition of maintaining the connection with the Roman Republic.

It was only in 284 CE, during the reign of the Emperor _____, that the emperors began to be regarded as rulers in their own right, effectively discarding the image of a democratic, republican government.
The history of the Roman Empire was intimately connected with the imperial Institution.

The initial years of the Roman Empire saw power in the hands of the aristocracy, as the _____s occupied the imperial office from 31 BCE to 68 CE

The _____, who took office from 69 to 96 CE, had a middle- class background. From 98 to 138 CE, several emperors had their roots from the Roman provinces.

The _____, who ruled from 193 to 235 CE, were non-Romans and were mostly Africans and Syrians who were granted Roman citizenship. From the 3rd century CE onwards, the emperors came from the ranks of the military.

• The most notable of the "_____" emperors were Augustus and Claudius of the Julio-Claudian dynasty;

the "_____'' Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius; and Diocletian.

• Most notorious of the Roman emperors were _____, who was believed to have been mentally unstable;

and _____, who was known for his extravagance, and was famously blamed for a great fire which destroyed the city of Rome in 64 CE

• The numerous rebellions and civil wars took their toll on the empire, particularly on the economy, with agricultural production and trade often coming to a standstill.

• This resulted in famine and hunger which was greatly felt within the Roman capital. Additionally, the increased prices of important commodities became a heavy burden on the majority of the population.

• The invasion of the _____s of Persia in the eastern regions of the empire during 231 CE, coincided with several economic crises in Rome which reduced the value of their currency. This resulted in increased prices of commodities, like grain.

• A period of political instability reigned from 235 to 284 CE, when 22 emperors and usurpers ruled in quick succession. The _____ and the suppression of Jews also contributed to the already unsteady social climate.
• The invasion of Germanic tribes during the latter half of the 3rd century CE was among the worst disasters the empire suffered.

• Stability was restored with the ascension of _____ as emperor in 284 CE. In order to address the new challenges facing the empire, _____ instituted several reforms. The army was expanded, economic reforms were implemented, and the administration of the government was reorganized.
• The most significant reform that _____ introduced was the establishment of the imperial college.

• The control and management of these was given to two emperors called _____. Junior emperors, known as Caesars, assisted these coemperors.

• This arrangement divided the responsibilities of administering a vast empire. On the other hand, the appointment of the _____ addressed the controversial issue of succession, as there was already a clearly identified heir for each co-emperor.

• This change had a deep impact in the succeeding years of the Roman Empire. The rule of four emperors was called a _____.

originally a military title which indicated one has command (imperium) over the army, later extended to senators and officials in the exercise of their duties. This concept later evolved into the modern term emperor.

"First Citizen," the most senior member of the senate.

"Father of the country"

a religious title equivalent to "high priest.“

had the power to supervise public morals, determine if laws are in the public interest, and select new members of the senate.

granted the position of tribune for life, despite being a patrician.

malus granted power "over and above all consuls."

• The creation of the tetrarchy, however, did not prevent another major struggle over the imperial succession. In 305 CE Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian voluntarily abdicated their positions. Caesars, Galerius and Constantius’ became the next co-emperors.

The selection of the new Caesars, however, caused much controversy, as it

excluded the most likely contenders, Maximian's son, Maxentius, and

Constantius' son, _____.

• A complicated and contentious political struggle ensued, which eliminated most of the contenders to the imperial throne, including the reigning co- emperors, the appointed Caesars, and even the former emperor Maximian, who was forced by _____ to commit suicide.

The final struggle was between the two surviving contenders, _____ and Constantine. Constantine eventually defeated _____ in the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 CE.

Constantine ruled as co-emperor for a few years, but he soon eliminated his co-emperor, _____, after another civil war. Constantine eventually reigned as sole emperor from 324 to 337 CE, reuniting the empire under his authority.

_____ was best known for being the patron of Christianity. The end of his reign in 337 CE resulted in a series of wars for the right to succeed his throne.

The empire at this point was already weak, both from the political struggles among the emperor's successors, and the religious turmoil between Christians and Romans, still resistant to the new religion.

External threats to the empire grew and slowly eroded the stability of Rome. A military campaign against the Persians in 363 CE ended with the death of the Emperor Julian.

• In 369 CE Germanic _____s entered the borders of the empire. The Roman army was defeated by the _____s in 378 CE, forcing the Romans to negotiate a peace treaty with the foreigners.

• The empire continued to be ruled by coemperors, though this arrangement often changed amidst the uncertain conditions of the empire.

The last Roman emperor to rule a united empire was _____, who only lasted five months as sole emperor of Rome.

His death in 395 CE saw the empire pass into the hands of weak and ineffective emperors whose officials and generals plunged the empire further into war and division as they vied for power.

The empire was soon besieged by Germanic tribes, who took advantage of Empire weakness to invade the provinces of Rome.

Most of the western provinces were in the hands of Germanic tribes by the middle of the 5th century CE. The Vandals, Franks, Burgundians, and Visigoths occupied large areas of the west.
• A series of puppet emperors reigned until 476 CE, when the last emperor of the west, _____, was deposed. Roman rule was therefore effectively ended in the western regions, while in the east, the imperial Roman government persisted.

• The Eastern Roman Empire was also known as the _____, taken from Byzantium, the ancient Greek name of the Eastern Roman capital of Constantinople.

• The stability and power of the _____ was because of several reasons. The eastern regions of the Roman Empire were richer and more urbanized, and the empire made use of its abundant resources to mount an effective defense against foreign invaders.

• Most prominent of the Byzantine emperors was _____, who oversaw the empire at the height of its cultural progress and political influence.

• _____ initiated significant reforms in the legal system of the empire, most important of which were the revision and compilation of the Roman legal code in 529 CE.

• This code, with further additions and revisions, became the basis of the legal system of the Byzantine Empire

In 533 CE, Justinian sought to regain the western regions of the Roman Empire, and sent his general _____ on a campaign of reconquest.

They managed to reconquer territories in southern Spain and North Africa, culminating with the occupation of Italy and Rome in 540 CE. The reunification of the lands of the Roman Empire, however, was short lived.

The Byzantine Empire gradually d succumbed to internal struggles and external threats, and by 650 CE, its territories slowly fell into the hands of its aggressive neighbors.

• The culture of the Byzantine Empire was characterized by Greek and Eastern influences. The Greek language was predominant although Latin was used in a limited capacity for administrative matters.

• Art styles were heavily influenced by Greek art, and the most popular works of art were mosaics and frescoes. Around 701 to 900 CE, a religious movement called _____, resulted in the removal or destruction of many religious artworks, though religious and secular art continued to thrive.

• In architecture, the most prominent example of the Byzantine style was the Church of the Holy Wisdom or Hagia Sophia, which was built in Constantinople in 537 CE.