are developed through controlled experiments

rely on mental shortcuts that feel intuitively correct

avoid relying on personal experience

use standardized measurement procedures

Scientific theories rely mostly on opinion

Scientific theories avoid making predictions

Scientific theories are backed by extensive, cumulative evidence

Scientific theories cannot be changed by new data

An explanation based on observations of how people imitate others’ behavior

A motivation explanation grounded in needs like autonomy and competence

An explanation proposing people change their attitudes to reduce discomfort

An explanation claiming people only work hard when pressured, based on personal belief

Attribution Theory

Self-Determination Theory

Expectancy-Value Theory

Regulatory Focus Theory

Drive Theory

Self-Determination Theory

Social Learning Theory

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Social Learning Theory

Self-Determination Theory

Expectancy Theory

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The best theory applies only to complex cases

The best theory avoids broad predictions

The best theory uses the fewest assumptions

The best theory includes many interacting constructs

it can be interpreted many ways

it can potentially be disproven by evidence

it remains unchanged across studies

it is based on widely accepted beliefs

Grand theory

Mini-theory

Emergent theory

Mid-range model

Grand theory

Emergent theory

Mini-theory

Normative theory

States no relationship between variables

Identifies variables without making a prediction

Specifies the expected direction of the relationship between variables

Predicts a relationship between variables without direction

More sleep increases performance

Sleep and performance will be associated

Less sleep reduces accuracy

More sleep improves motivation

A. A directly observable behavior

B. An inferred underlying concept

C. A measurement tool

D. A statistical outcome

A person’s rating of how stressed they feel on a survey

Heart rate increases occur during demanding situations

Levels of cortisol circulating in the bloodstream

A theoretical description of stress as a psychological response to challenging or demanding conditions

Stress naturally at work

Stress induced in a lab challenge

Daily stress survey

Baseline physiology measure

Conceptual definition

Provoked definition

Measured operational definition

Comparative definition

Independent variable

Manipulated variable

Criterion variable

Controlled variable

Reducing variability

Using multiple independent methods

Ensuring identical results

Avoiding replication

A. Using multiple versions of the same questionnaire to measure a construct

B. Administering the same self-report scale at several time points

C. Relying solely on structured observation of behavior in one setting

D. Measuring the same construct with independent methods such as self-report ratings, behavioral indicators, and physiological data

Agreement across raters

Consistency across time

Internal item correlation

Predictive success

A. Minor differences in wording used when giving instructions during each testing session

B. Using the identical measure across both administrations of the test

C. Scoring responses using the same criteria at both time points

D. Meaningful changes in participants’ internal states between sessions, such as mood

Raters receive identical training but interpret subtle behaviors differently during scoring

Raters apply the scoring criteria with different levels of strictness or leniency

Raters meet periodically to review examples and compare scoring decisions

Raters work independently to avoid influencing one another’s judgments

The wrong construct is measured

Irrelevant behaviors are chosen

Overall impression biases rating

Inconsistent scales are used

Prediction accuracy of the assessment

Items in the assessment measure same construct

Rater agreement across individuals using the same assessment

Score stability across time using the same assessment

Score stability

Rater agreement

Internal consistency

Real-world accuracy

Surface appearance of items on an assessment

Capturing the intended concept with the items on an assessment

Predicting outcomes using the assessment

Stability of scores across time using the assessment

A. Items on an assessment are useful in predicting behavior

B. Items on an assessment appear like they measure the construct in question

C. Items on an assessment cover the full construct range

D. Using multiple methods to assess a construct

Correlations between items on an assessment are intended to measure the same construct

Apparent appropriateness of items on an assessment for measuring a construct

Predictive accuracy of items on an assessment used to measure a construct

Rater agreement using the same assessment to measure a construct

The internal structure of an assessment to measure a construct

The relevance of items on an assessment for measuring a construct

The relation of items on an assessment to external indicators of a construct

Reliable subscales within an assessment are all intended to measure the same construct

Demonstrating test scores correlate with an established measure administered at the same point in time

Demonstrating test scores accurately forecast future performance or outcomes

Demonstrating items within the measure consistently assess the same underlying construct

Demonstrating a measure yields similar scores when administered repeatedly over time

Shows its scores can accurately predict performance or outcomes assessed at a later time point

Shows its scores correlate strongly with an established measure that assesses the same construct

Shows its items collectively represent all important facets of the construct being measured

Shows individuals obtain similar scores when the same measure is administered repeatedly under identical conditions

Uses several different types of evidence to assess the same underlying construct

Draws on well-established instruments that have been supported across multiple studies

Attempts to assess a construct using an indicator that does not actually represent the concept of interest

Combines physiological and behavioral indicators to obtain a more complete understanding of the construct

Participants know they are being observed

Participants naturally change over time

Different raters are measuring the same participants

Participants want to present themselves in a positive light

Participants encounter slightly different versions of study materials across sessions

Participants do not consistently follow the study procedures or instructions

Events outside the study influence participants’ responses between measurement points

The measure unintentionally assesses more than one construct at the same time

The groups differ in important ways before the study begins, affecting how their scores can be compared

Participants discontinue their involvement at different stages of the study

The tools, scoring criteria, or data-collection procedures change during the course of the study

The instructions provided to participants are repeated to ensure consistent

May limit natural behavioral variability due to increased procedural control

Often require very precise operational definitions that may not reflect everyday situations

May fail to resemble the environments in which the behavior normally occurs

Can make participants more aware they are being studied, influencing how they respond

Participants change their behavior because study procedures unintentionally signal how they are expected to respond

Researchers rely on only a limited set of measurement techniques to assess the construct

Experimental groups are created through random assignment to reduce preexisting differences

The measurement instruments produce stable and repeatable scores across testing sessions

A fixed benchmark

A Reference group

The participants’ prior performance

An Ideal standard

A ranking of individuals based on how their scores relate to one another within the group

A distribution showing how many items test-takers typically answer correctly

A predetermined level of performance indicating whether essential knowledge or skills have been mastered

A comparison group selected to match demographic characteristics such as age or background