Encrypt all emails by default

Map and track environmental and geographical data in real time

Block unauthorized access to mobile apps

Simulate malware outbreaks

Highly trained penetration testers

Low‑skilled attackers who use pre‑made tools or scripts

Senior system administrators

Ethical hackers with certifications

White‑hat hackers only use open‑source tools

White‑hat hackers have authorization; black‑hat hackers do not and act illegally

Black‑hat hackers never target networks

White‑hat hackers work remotely while black‑hat hackers work on‑site

Quarterly sales goals

Political or social causes

Personal curiosity only

Compliance audits

Entertainment

Financial gain

Academic research

Reputation among peers only

It is easy to delete without detection

It contains long‑lasting, sensitive information that can be used for fraud or blackmail

It is always encrypted and useless

Hospitals pay attackers to store records

There is a global shortage of skilled professionals and increasing digital threats

Most jobs require only entry‑level skills

Cybersecurity work is seasonal

Digital threats are declining

To store backups securely

To attract attackers and gather intelligence on attack methods

To block all external traffic

To accelerate software development

PCI DSS

ISO 27000 series

IEEE 802.11

HTML5

A patch that fixes a bug

A potential cause of an unwanted incident, such as an attack

A scheduled maintenance window

A secure communication channel

A security training program

A weakness that can be exploited by a threat actor

A type of antivirus software

A legislative requirement

Education: grades; Employment: performance evaluations; Finance: bank statements

Education: class schedules; Employment: office layout; Finance: cafeteria menu

Education: campus map; Employment: parking passes; Finance: ATM locations

Education: event flyers; Employment: holiday calendar; Finance: billboard ads

Blocking domain names to reduce traffic

Manipulating DNS data to redirect users to malicious sites

Encrypting DNS queries to improve privacy

Creating new top‑level domains

Capturing data packets to steal information such as passwords

Repairing damaged network cables

Generating encryption keys

Allocating IP addresses automatically

They run only on battery power

They were originally designed without cybersecurity in mind and are now connected to IT networks

They use overly complex passwords

They do not control physical processes

WannaCry

Stuxnet

Heartbleed

Conficker

Balancing national security needs with citizen privacy rights

Eliminating all malware worldwide

Funding only private companies

Restricting internet access to universities

Insiders already have legitimate access to systems and data

External attackers have more resources

Insiders cannot be monitored

External threats never use social engineering

Plugging in an infected USB device

Using a company‑approved password manager

Reading the employee handbook

Attending security awareness training

Organizations have less control over security updates and configurations on personal devices

BYOD guarantees devices are more secure

It limits network connectivity

It eliminates the need for authentication

Volume, Velocity, Variety

Vision, Value, Validity

Virtualization, Versioning, Verification

Vulnerability, Visibility, Variance

It contains massive amounts of valuable and sensitive information

It is too small to analyze

It is stored only on paper

It never includes personal records

A single short‑term malware infection

A long‑term, stealthy attack where intruders gain continuous access

A hardware malfunction

A network backup process

An attack that activates only when specific target criteria are met

An attack that randomly targets any device

An attack limited to wireless networks

An attack that only uses phishing emails

Users must remember more passwords

A compromise of the identity provider can grant widespread access across multiple services

It prevents single sign‑on

It makes auditing impossible

To provide a framework for applying cybersecurity principles across systems and networks

To replace all existing cybersecurity tools with a single platform

To measure network speed and latency

To create backup copies of organizational data

John McCumber

Bruce Schneier

Whitfield Diffie

Ron Rivest

CIA Triad; States of Data; Security Safeguards

Confidentiality; Privacy; Availability

Hardware; Software; People

Threats; Vulnerabilities; Risks

Protection of data from unauthorized access

Ability of a system to remain accessible during failures

Verification that data has not been altered

Tracking and recording user actions

Encryption

Packet sniffing

Load balancing

Data deduplication

Personal, business, classified

Public, archived, compressed

Static, dynamic, streaming

Numeric, textual, graphical

A user's identity

Network uptime

File ownership rights

Data compression ratio

Password

Clear-text email

Public Wi‑Fi hotspot

Unencrypted USB drive

What a user is allowed to do on a system

Whether a user is online

How fast a network transmits data

How data is compressed

To track and record user activity

To encrypt stored passwords

To block malicious traffic

To validate network routes

Confidentiality is the duty to protect data; privacy is the correct use of personal data

Confidentiality is about uptime; privacy is about backups

Confidentiality is user training; privacy is access control

Confidentiality is encryption; privacy is hashing

That data is accurate, complete, and not tampered with

That data is available to all users at all times

That data is stored redundantly

That data is compressed efficiently

Verifying data integrity by creating a digital fingerprint

Encrypting data so only authorized users can read it

Compressing files to reduce size

Balancing traffic across multiple servers

SHA-256

AES-256

RSA-2048

TLS 1.3

Ensuring that data and services are accessible to authorized users when needed

Ensuring data remains confidential from unauthorized users

Ensuring data is accurate and unaltered

Ensuring traffic is encrypted end-to-end

$$99.999\%$$ availability

$$99.9\%$$ availability

$$95\%$$ availability

$$90\%$$ availability

Data at rest, data in transit, data in process

Structured data, semi-structured data, unstructured data

Hot data, warm data, cold data

Primary data, secondary data, tertiary data

Stored data on devices or servers

Data currently being transmitted over a network

Data being computed by applications

Data cached in memory only

Vulnerable endpoints

Packet sniffing

Weak routing protocols

Excessive bandwidth

Data being moved across a network or between devices

Data stored on backup tapes

Data processed by an application

Data archived for long-term retention

Eavesdropping or packet sniffing

Disk fragmentation

Power over Ethernet failure

Excessive logging

Encryption (e.g., VPN)

Defragmentation

Load shedding

Open mail relay

Data being input, computed, or output by applications

Data archived for compliance

Data stored only on removable media

Data queued for printing

Malicious code

Cable attenuation

Dust accumulation

Low screen resolution

Technology, cloud, and human safeguards

Physical, chemical, and biological safeguards

Hardware, software, and firmware safeguards

Policies, audits, and fines

Firewall

Spreadsheet template

Inkjet printer

Public bulletin board

Software as a Service—applications hosted by cloud providers

Security as a Standard—government cybersecurity rules

Storage as a System—on‑premises tape libraries

Service and Support—help desk procedures

To educate users on safe practices and reduce human-related risks

To increase network bandwidth

To eliminate all software vulnerabilities

To enforce legal penalties on attackers

A policy defining appropriate and inappropriate use of company systems and networks

A policy that sets hardware warranty terms

A policy that lists public holidays for staff

A policy for printer ink management

To ensure consistency by defining specific rules and configurations

To reduce the need for backups

To prevent any user errors from occurring

To guarantee $$100\%$$ system uptime

A virus requires user action to spread; a worm self‑propagates without user action

A virus only targets servers; a worm only targets desktops

A virus is always benign; a worm is always malicious

A virus encrypts data; a worm compresses data

A virus self-replicates without user action, while a worm needs user interaction to spread

A virus requires user action to spread, while a worm self-replicates and spreads automatically

A virus only infects mobile devices, while a worm only targets servers

A virus is harmless, while a worm always encrypts files

They openly announce themselves to users to request permission

They disguise themselves as legitimate software and exploit user privileges to install malware or create backdoors

They only slow down internet speed temporarily

They are limited to sending spam emails

To monitor user browsing habits

To encrypt or lock a user’s data and demand payment for its release

To improve system performance

To provide remote technical support

It optimizes the operating system for faster performance

It hides the attacker’s presence by modifying the operating system, allowing ongoing privileged access without detection

It automatically updates all security patches

It blocks all outbound network traffic

A broad phishing campaign sent to random recipients

A highly targeted phishing attack aimed at specific individuals or organizations

A method of encrypting emails for security

A hardware-based attack on network switches

Phishing conducted through voice calls or VoIP to trick victims into revealing information

Phishing conducted only via email

Malware that infects video files

A vulnerability in virtual machines

Smishing

Pharming

Keylogging

Drive-by download

A DoS attack uses multiple compromised systems, while a DDoS uses one source

A DoS attack comes from one source, while a DDoS attack originates from multiple compromised systems

A DoS is legal, while a DDoS is illegal

A DoS only affects mobile networks, while a DDoS only affects wired networks

An attack where malware deletes files on a local system

An attack where an unauthorized party intercepts and possibly alters communication between two legitimate parties

An attack that only targets wireless routers by flooding them with traffic

An attack that replaces a user’s keyboard with a malicious device

A legitimate access point with enhanced security

A fake wireless access point set up to mimic a legitimate AP and lure users into connecting

A peer-to-peer connection used for file sharing

A backup device used to improve network redundancy

Use static ARP entries

Enable dynamic ARP inspection on network devices

Disable HTTPS in browsers

Switch to WEP encryption on Wi‑Fi

An attack where captured messages are retransmitted to impersonate a user or bypass authentication

An attack that replaces software libraries with malicious versions

An attack that brute-forces passwords using dictionary lists

An attack that scans open ports on a server

It encrypts all user data automatically

It provides attackers unauthorized remote access to a system after initial compromise

It blocks malicious IP addresses by default

It updates antivirus signatures

They only use outdated malware that is easily detected

They exploit unknown vulnerabilities for which no patches or fixes exist yet

They require physical access to the device

They are limited to social media platforms

An authorized access point installed by the network team

An unauthorized wireless access point installed without approval, often used for attacks

A device that only provides guest Wi‑Fi

A hardware firewall connected to the router

By shielding screens

By using privacy filters

By being aware of surroundings when entering sensitive information

By sharing passwords with trusted colleagues

Software that is clearly malicious and encrypts files

Software that is annoying or undesirable and may gather data, but is not clearly malicious

Software that is guaranteed safe and vetted by government agencies

Hardware drivers required for operating system updates

To improve legitimate search rankings for educational websites

To manipulate search engine results to direct users to malicious websites

To block all pop-up advertisements by default

To encrypt search queries for privacy

Because users often trust SMS messages more and tend to click links without verifying the sender

Because SMS messages are always scanned by antivirus software

Because SMS links are blocked by all mobile carriers

Because SMS is only used for internal corporate communication

A legitimate browser update that improves performance

Malware that modifies browser settings to redirect users to unsafe or advertising-heavy websites

A plug‑in that removes cookies for privacy

A tool used by administrators to enforce security policies

To compress data for faster transmission

To protect information by ensuring confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and non‑repudiation

To increase computer graphics performance

To replace passwords with biometrics

Encrypted data that is unreadable without a decryption key

The original readable message before encryption

A random key generated during hashing

A message stored only in binary form

Encrypted data that is unreadable without a decryption key

The original readable message before encryption

A public key used to verify signatures

A checksum appended to network packets

Cryptography creates secure codes; cryptanalysis attempts to break or defeat them

Cryptography stores passwords; cryptanalysis transmits messages

Cryptography hides images; cryptanalysis compresses files

Cryptography speeds networks; cryptanalysis slows them

Scytale

Caesar Cipher

Vigenère Cipher

Enigma

SHA-256

Key distribution — both sender and receiver must share the same secret key

It cannot encrypt large files

It never supports authentication

It requires internet access

The receiver’s public key

The sender’s private key

A shared session key

A one-time pad

The receiver’s private key

The sender’s public key

A symmetric key

A hash value

It uses complex mathematical operations and larger key sizes

It transmits data over longer distances

It requires multiple recipients

It relies on physical tokens

AES

RSA

Diffie–Hellman

ECC

RSA

AES

DES

Blowfish

To combine asymmetric encryption for secure key exchange with symmetric encryption for fast data transfer

To replace all symmetric ciphers with hashes

To hide messages inside images

To increase compression efficiency

Hiding secret data inside other data such as an image, audio, or video file

Converting plaintext to ciphertext with a key

Detecting malicious network traffic

Erasing metadata from files

Encrypts data in fixed-sized blocks

Encrypts only headers of files

Encrypts data one bit at a time

Compresses data before encryption

Encrypts data one bit or byte at a time

Encrypts in fixed-size blocks

Stores keys on hardware tokens

Hashes messages for integrity

Identification

Authentication

Authorization

Accountability

Confidentiality

Biometrics like fingerprints, iris scan, or facial recognition

Passwords remembered by the user

Hardware tokens carried by the user

Security questions answered by the user

Mandatory Access Control (MAC)

Discretionary Access Control (DAC)

Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)

Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC)

Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)

Mandatory Access Control (MAC)

Discretionary Access Control (DAC)

Lattice-Based Access Control

It is less secure because users can share or change permissions too freely

It never allows file sharing

It requires custom hardware

It cannot be implemented on operating systems

Locks

Passwords

Encryption

Firewall rules

Passwords

Locks

CCTV

Mantraps

RSA (for key exchange)

AES (for data encryption)

MD5 (for hashing only)

DES (legacy)

To define rules that specify which users or devices can access certain resources

To encrypt files using symmetric keys

To compress and archive logs

To assign IP addresses on a network

AES uses stronger keys and is more secure than the outdated DES

AES is older and easier to implement

AES avoids using any substitution boxes

AES requires no hardware acceleration

Replacing sensitive data with a non-sensitive but realistic substitute to protect information

Encrypting data using a public key

Deleting sensitive data permanently

Storing sensitive data in a separate database

To reduce exposure of sensitive data

To protect data in development and testing environments

To increase network bandwidth

To comply with password reuse policies

Substitution

Shuffling

Nulling-out

Mirroring

Watermarking

To hide the existence of a secret message inside another file

To verify message integrity with hashes

To scramble data for compression

To assign user permissions

The output file after embedding hidden data

The unmodified cover file used for hiding

The cryptographic key used for encryption

The detector used to find hidden data

Three bits (one per color channel)

One bit total

Six bits (two per channel)

Eight bits total

The process of detecting hidden information inside a file

The process of encrypting a message with a key

The process of masking sensitive fields in a database

The process of compressing images for storage

Posting a normal-looking status that secretly signals a meaning to a friend

Using a VPN to encrypt all internet traffic

Compressing files to reduce their size

Sharing a public encryption key on a website

The science of encoding and decoding information to ensure confidentiality, integrity, and authentication

The process of compressing data to save storage space

The practice of hiding messages only through imagery

A method of backing up files to protect against loss

Plaintext is readable data; ciphertext is encrypted data

Plaintext is compressed data; ciphertext is expanded data

Plaintext uses a private key; ciphertext uses a public key

Plaintext is binary; ciphertext is hexadecimal

An algorithm used to encrypt and decrypt data

A device for physically securing access

A protocol for routing network packets

A checksum used to verify file downloads

Caesar Cipher and Vigenère Cipher

AES and RSA

Blowfish and Twofish

SHA-256 and SHA-512

The same key is used for both encryption and decryption

It always uses public and private key pairs

It only encrypts fixed-size blocks

It cannot be implemented in software

AES

RSA

ECC

ElGamal

Key distribution is difficult because both parties need the same shared key

It cannot encrypt large files

It requires expensive hardware to run

It never achieves confidentiality

A method using two different keys—one public to encrypt and one private to decrypt

A technique that uses a single shared key for both encryption and decryption

A compression method that reduces redundancy

A hashing approach that produces a fixed-length digest

RSA

AES

DES

Blowfish

It allows secure communication without having to share secret keys beforehand

It guarantees zero latency in data transfer

It prevents all forms of data tampering automatically

It requires no computational resources

To get the speed of symmetric encryption and the secure key exchange of asymmetric encryption

To avoid using any keys at all

To make data readable during transit

To eliminate authentication requirements

A cipher that encrypts fixed-sized blocks of data

A cipher that encrypts one bit at a time

A method of hashing passwords

A protocol for establishing VPN tunnels

A cipher that encrypts data one bit or one byte at a time

A cipher that encrypts fixed-sized blocks of data

A compression algorithm

A key exchange protocol

It creates an encrypted tunnel over the internet to protect data and hide the user’s IP address

It converts plaintext to ciphertext using public keys

It prevents files from being deleted

It scans systems for malware automatically

Secure browsing on public Wi‑Fi

Defragmenting a hard drive

Compressing multimedia files

Installing operating system updates

Physical, Logical, Administrative

Mandatory, Discretionary, Role-Based

Preventive, Detective, Corrective

Public, Private, Hybrid

Locked doors

Password policies

Role assignments in an application

Firewall rules

Digital mechanisms that control access, such as passwords or biometrics

Physical barriers like fences

Organizational policies and procedures

Backup schedules for servers

Security policies, procedures, or background checks

Biometric fingerprint scanners

Smart locks on doors

Encryption of hard drives

A strict model where the system, not the user, controls access rights

A model where users assign permissions freely

A role-centric model that groups users by job function

A decentralized approach with no central authority

Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)

Mandatory Access Control (MAC)

Discretionary Access Control (DAC)

Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC)

Allowing access only during office hours or from specific IP addresses

Letting users decide permissions for their own files

Granting access solely by physical badge scans

Encrypting data with a symmetric key

That data remains accurate, unchanged, and trustworthy

That data is always encrypted with AES

That data is stored only in the cloud

That data loads faster on networks

Hashing and digital signatures

Compression and deduplication

VPN tunneling and network address translation

Symmetric encryption and RAID mirroring

A one-way function that converts data into a fixed-length value called a hash or digest

A reversible encryption method

A protocol for assigning IP addresses

A data compression technique

Because it cannot be reversed to recover the original data

Because it only works on text files

Because it requires a pair of keys

Because it always produces different outputs

When two different inputs produce the same hash value

When the same input yields different output lengths

When a hash matches its original plaintext

When hashing fails due to insufficient memory

SHA‑256

MD5

DES

RC4

It is vulnerable to collisions

It cannot run on modern CPUs

It uses too much memory

It only produces very long hashes

To prove the copy is identical to the original (fixity verification)

To encrypt the image for confidentiality

To compress the image to save storage

To remove sensitive information from the image

To prevent attackers who obtain the database from reading user passwords directly

To ensure passwords are always the same length

To allow users to share passwords safely

To make login processes faster

The entered password is hashed and compared with the stored hash

The entered password is encrypted and stored as plaintext

The stored hash is decrypted to reveal the original password

The system sends the password to the server without transformation

An attack using a list of common passwords to find a matching hash

An attack that tries all possible character combinations

An attack that intercepts passwords during transmission

An attack that modifies the hashing algorithm

Trying all possible combinations until the correct hash is found

Guessing passwords from a list of common phrases

Phishing users to obtain their passwords

Exploiting software vulnerabilities to bypass login

A random string added to a password before hashing

A secret key used to sign a message

A checksum appended after encryption

A token used to start a session