(a)   was difficult, and the people of Arabia turned to trade and the occasional raids against trading caravans to acquire needed commodities. The difficult physical and economic environment gave rise to a hardy people, who emphasized blood ties and mutual protection against aggressive enemies.

A polytheistic, animistic religion existed among the various tribes of Arabia. The (a)   in Mecca was considered a significant religious site, and was visited by pilgrims.

It was in this environment that _____ ibn Abdallah, a successful Meccan trader and wellknown mediator, received the first divinely-inspired messages that formed the basis of a new religion, Islam.
In 610 CE the first of these revelations came to _____, and among the first converts to Islam included his family and relatives. This new religion was a unique development within Arabian society, as it stressed the existence of only one, true god, Allah.The increasing commercialization and emphasis on wealth, coupled with the harsh inter-tribal warfare, left many of society's weakest and most vulnerable easy prey for abuse.
The old, pagan religions, in _____'s view, were insufficient in addressing the social crisis prevailing not only in Mecca, but also throughout the region.

(a)  

In order to rise above the inequality and the divisions of the old order, a new social arrangement had to be established. The emergence of Islam, with its emphasis on a sole, unifying god, and a community ( (a)   ) united in mutual support and protection, was the ideal development that would unify the Arabs as a nation.

Muhammad also took inspiration from his contacts with Jews and Christians, whom he considered as followers of an earlier revelation. The arrival of (a)   was considered as god's own revelation for the Arabs and the continuation of the great monotheistic traditions of Judaism and Christianity.

Muhammad's growing community soon ran afoul with the local leaders of Mecca and the first community of Muslims experiencing persecution. In 622 CE, the Muslim families relocated to the city of Yathrib, then a thriving agricultural settlement.
This migration ( (a)   ) marked a milestone in Islamic history, as Muhammad separated from his tribe and joined a new one, establishing a new community based not on blood, but on faith. It was in Yathrib that the Muslims resolved to establish their community.

The city was renamed as (a)   , and became the template for the ideal ummah which Muhammad longed to establish. Soon, the Muslim community attracted other tribes into the city, many of whom were converted into Islam.
Members of the ummah vowed not to attack each other, and provided mutual support and protection to fellow Muslims and allies.

Within Medina, the basics of Islamic worship and tradition were put into place. The first mosques were built, and these places of worship became the central fixture in everyday _____ life.
Muhammad's leadership expanded the _____ community, and political ties were established among many Arab tribes. The growing community of _____s, however, met several critical challenges.
The pagan tribes of Mecca and nearby cities sought to stamp out the _____s, and this led to a series of battles against the community of Medina.

(a)  

The pledge of non-violence among Muslims also caused economic complications since they could no longer go on _____s against each other.
These _____s were a part of Arab life and played an important economic role for the tribes providing them important commodities that they would be unable to acquire through other means.
The Muslims attacked the other pagan tribes which fueled even more animosity toward them.

(a)  

The military skill of _____ and his followers resulted in several victories which further established the prestige of Islam among non-believers. Many Arabs began to ally themselves with the Muslims, with most of them converting to Islam.
_____ also employed diplomacy in dealing with his defeated enemies, and often reminded his followers to treat defeated foes and non- Muslims humanely. _____'s successes culminated with him leading a massive army into Mecca in 630 CE.

(a)  

The leaders of Mecca surrendered and the Muslims entered the city without any bloodshed. Muhammad had the idols surrounding the Kaaba destroyed, and rededicated the shrine to Allah.
By this time, the _____ic faith had gained distinction throughout the Arabian Peninsula. When the Prophet died in 632 CE, almost all of Arabia had become part of a larger ummah the dar al _____ - a world where _____ic faith is paramount.

(a)  

The death of the Prophet placed the Muslim community at a crossroads. The issue of succeeding to the leadership of the ummah fell on Muhammad's deputies ( (a)   ), who were among the first converts and the most trusted followers of the Prophet.
The selection of the new leaders of the ummah gave rise to several important developments in Islam, as well as a number of significant challenges for the Muslim community
SCRAMBLED WORD:

hiakahlf

The first to take on the leadership of the Islamic community was _____, who had to address the issue of religious revolts which threatened to divide the Islamic community.
Many of the newly converted tribes wished to assert their independence, and the death of the Prophet gave them an opportunity to separate from the larger community.
Several wars broke out, and _____ was able to restore order and unity through the prudent use of force and diplomacy. Upon his death in 634 CE, _____ had successfully consolidated the Islamic state, and established its identity as a unified community under a single ruler - the caliph.

(a)  

Another important development during Abu Bakr's reign was the preservation of the words of the Prophet in writing. The (a)   was originally passed on by word of mouth, but the uncertain times often meant that many of the people who heard the pronouncements of the Prophet died in the previous wars.
Putting the words of the Prophet in writing ensured that the next generations of Muslims were guided by the pronouncements and any risk of misinterpretations or contradictions in doctrine were removed.

Under the reign of the caliph _____, the Muslims began a campaign of conquest which brought Islam outside the Arabian peninsula.
By this time, the chronic tribal warfare among the Arabs had ceased and the central authority of the caliphate was securely established throughout Arabia.
Muslim forces entered Iraq, Syria, and Egypt, and engaged two of the powerful empires of the Middle East at that time: the Persian Empire and the Byzantine Empire.
_____ dealt the Persians a decisive defeat in 637 CE and the Persian Empire came under Muslim control a year later. Jerusalem was occupied in 638 CE and by 641 CE, the Arabs had full control over Syria, Palestine, and Egypt.
The acquisition of additional territories marked a turning point in the history of the Muslim community. The administration of these newly acquired lands was a challenge, as the inhabitants were of varied ethnicities and religions.
The caliphs decided not to impose the Islamic faith on their newly conquered people, and _____ saw to it that discipline was enforced among the Muslim troops that occupied the territories..

(a)  

The Muslims considered foreigners under their power as protected clients ( (a)   ), deserving of protection. Apart from a poll tax imposed on them by the caliphate, the Muslim leaders generally did not impose any other restrictions on their non-Muslim subjects.
SCRAMBLED WORD:

midhims

The murder of Umar in 644 CE resulted in a period of trouble for the Islamic community. The leadership passed on to (a)   , who, in the initial years of his rule, governed well and successfully embarked in military campaigns which reached Libya, Armenia, Afghanistan, and the island of Cyprus.
SCRAMBLED WORD:

hntuma

_____ administration implemented a number of economic and administrative reforms which resulted in economic prosperity throughout the Arab lands. _____'s family, the Umayyads, rose into prominence and various family members were given important positions in the caliphate.

This action fueled discontent among a number of Muslims, who began to accuse _____ of nepotism. Many of the Muslims who began to chafe under the rule of _____ belonged to the tribes from Mecca and Medina and believed that as the original followers of the Prophet, they should be given more privileges and opportunities to govern.

Muslim soldiers, in particular, resented the restrictions implemented by Umar and continued by _____, and sought permission to establish private estates in the conquered territories.

Another action of _____, the suppression of alternate versions of the Qur'an was opposed by many of the original Quran-reciters.

(a)  

The opposition soon began to acclaim another leader to take over the administration of the ummah - _____. _____ was Muhammad's cousin and son- in-law and was said to be the first male convert to Islam, and thus had considerable influence within the community.

(a)  

The discontent among the Muslims resulted in mutiny among a group of Arab soldiers in 656 CE, who attacked and murdered Uthman in his home in Medina.
The murder of Uthman sparked a civil war between the _____ and the supporters of Ali. The _____ were led by Muawiyah I, Uthman's cousin, who claimed the leadership of the caliphate and was able to gather the support of the majority of Muslims.

(a)  

The rival factions clashed in a number of wars, and several attempts to negotiate peace between the Umayyads and Ali failed. Additionally, a group of Muslims who had been disillusioned by the conflict among the leaders of the ummah established a separate sect which became known as the t.
This radical group of Muslims rejected both Muawiyah and Ali, believing that only an individual committed to the ways of Islam should be given the right to lead the ummah.
SCRAMBLED WORD:
rtjhkiiaes

(a)  

The Kharijites mounted several attempts to kill both Muawiyah and Ali. and were violently suppressed by both the _____ and the followers of Ali.
Despite this complication, the _____ continued to have the advantage in succeeding battles, and in 661 CE Ali was murdered by a Kharijite. Ali's heir, Hasan, negotiated for peace with the _____ and peace was restored.
The conflict between Muawiyah and Ali was the first great crisis in the Islamic community. The crisis had both profound political and spiritual effects on the ummah.
The community was irreversibly divided into separate factions on the question of the leadership of the ummah, a question which had deep spiritual significance for the Muslims.
The supporters of Ali persisted in their belief that their leader had been unjustly denied the leadership of the ummah. They believed that only members of the Prophet's family had the right to lead the community.

(a)  

The adherents to this view acclaimed Ali and his descendants as the rightful leaders ( (a)   ) of the ummah and called themselves the Shiah-i Ali or "The Party of Ali.“
This group would give rise to the Shia sect of Islamic faith. On the other hand, those who accepted the leadership of Muawiyah and the first caliphs formed the majority group within the Muslim community.

These Muslims would later be known as the (a)   , who accepted the "tradition of Muhammad and the consensus of the ummah" (ahl as- sunnah).
The Kharijites, as was mentioned, held a more extreme view. They believed that faithful Muslims have the right to revolt against a leader who did not conform to their interpretation of Islam.

Ali's death gave _____ an opportunity to consolidate his rule. In 661 CE, _____ was officially proclaimed as caliph, and he established his rule in the city of Damascus. This marked the start of the Umayyad dynasty, and their rule saw the gradual expansion of the caliphate, and the conversion of the dhimmis into Islam.
SCRAMBLED WORD:
hmwuiaay

(a)  

But their rule was again challenged by another rebellion by the Shia in 680 СЕ. Muawiyah had selected his son Yazid as the next caliph, but this succession was disputed by the followers of Ali, who sought to have Ali's second son and the Prophet's grandson, (a)   , take the leadership.

_____ and his followers met a tragic end in the plain of Kerbala, where they were massacred by soldiers sent by the Umayyads.
The death of _____ threw the caliphate into discord, as it sparked several rebellions and greatly weakened the influence of the Umayyads.
By the 8th century CE, stability in the empire was restored and the Umayyads set about establishing a centralized administration throughout their territories. Arabic became the official language of the empire, and a standard system for coinage was introduced.

(a)  

_____ entered a period of further development during the Umayyad caliphate, with the emergence of various schools of thought that discussed Islamic theology and its application in various aspects of Muslim life.
According to these Muslim thinkers, society should function based on the principles of _____. These discussions gave rise to developments in Islamic law, jurisprudence, and historical writing. The absolute monarchy of the Umayyads gained the acceptance of majority of the Muslims.

(a)  

This relative stability resulted in economic gains and a resurgence in military expansion. Muslim armies continued their expansion into North Africa and established a kingdom in Spain.
The region of Spain became known to the Muslims as (a)   . Their continued march into Western Europe, however, was halted by the Franks under the leadership of Charles Martel.

The Franks defeated the Muslim army in the (a)   in 732 CE. This marked the greatest extent of Muslim expansion into Western Europe. The rapid expansion of the empire at this point had taken a toll on the resources of the caliphate, and Umayyad rule became increasingly troubled.
The economy was affected by the great cost of the military campaigns and there was growing unrest among non-Muslims and newlyconverted subjects regarding their treatment as second-class citizens. Questions were also continually raised regarding the legitimacy of the rule of the Umayyads.

In 740 CE, a series of rebellions was led by the _____, a prominent clan that claimed descent from Muhammad's family.
They gained the support of a vast majority of the empire, including the Shia and non-Arab Muslims. In 750 CE, the _____ sucessfully overthrew the last Umayyad caliph and established their leadership over the Muslim empire.

(a)  

The Abbasid received great political and military support from the Persians in their rise to power, and many aspects of the rule of Abbasid caliphs were influenced by the ancient Persian monarchs. Additionally, many non-Arab Muslims were appointed to important positions, further strengthening support for the _____.
These actions, however, alienated a number of groups within the Muslim community, particularly the Arabs. The surviving members of the Umayyad family, which had been almost annihilated by the _____, managed to escape to Spain where they established a rival caliphate.

(a)  

Despite these challenges, the initial decades of Abbasid rule soon gave way to greater stability and order within the empire and a new period of cultural and economic development ensued.
Under the rule of (a)   , from 786 until 809 CE, the Abbasid caliphate reached the peak of its power, and the Muslim world was at the height of its economic and cultural progress

At this time the territories of the empire extended into North Africa and Central Asia. During this (a)   , art, literature, and the sciences flourished. Muslim and non-Muslim scholars worked to translate classical Hellenistic texts into Arabic.
Building upon the knowledge from these texts, these scholars made several advances in philosophy, mathematics, science, and technology.

The political control of the provinces were often in the hands of local leaders who worked hand-in-hand with religious leaders ( (a)   ) in administering their respective provinces.

The Crusader states managed to survive for almost two centuries until the recapture of Jerusalem by Yusuf ibn Ayyub Salah ad-Din ( (a)   ). Christian presence in the Middle East persisted until the 13th century CE with the last Christian stronghold of Acre falling in 1291 CE.

These reformers espoused conservative, sometimes extreme, interpretations of the Qur'an. One notable reformer was _____, who decried the Mongol conquerors as infidels and attacked Shia Islam and Sufism as inauthentic developments.

He also criticized the government for practices which went against the Sharia, and advocated a reform in Islamic law. For his views, he was sent to jail where he died in 1328 CE.

Many reformers like _____, often clashed with the religious and political establishment, and they often found support from the masses.

(a)  

The Turkish people began to emerge as the prominent military and political force in the Near East.

Most notable among the leaders during this era was _____ (Tamerlane), who embarked on a series of military campaigns that conquered the old Mongol territories and even defeated the Mamluk Empire.

_____ reached as far as Russia in 1395, and even conquered Delhi in 1398 CE. With the death of _____ in 1405 CE, power shifted to the Ottoman Turks, who had established their own empire in Asia Minor during the 13th century CE.

(a)  

The _____s established the _____ empire that controlled Anatolia. Mesopotamia, eastern Mediterranean, and the Balkans. Their defeat of the Serbian Empire in 1389 CE and the occupation of Constantinople in 1453 CE established the _____s as a regional power in the Near East.
At the height of their progress, the _____'s influence extended Into Central and Eastern Europe, and even into North Africa.

(a)  

The (a)   emerged in Iran in 1500 CE, while the Mughal Empire was established in India in 1526 CE. These empires were characterized by centralized authority, powerful rulers, and a strong Islamic orientation.
The Muslim community, by the 16th century CE, enjoyed strong trade ties with Asia, establishing several trade outposts in Southeast Asia.

Islamic communities were founded in Southeast Asia from the 13th to the 15th centuries CE and were important trading centers in the region.
The great Islamic empires of the Near East, of the Ottoman Empire, was the only one to endure until modern times and into the early 20th century.