Base your answer on the following information: Anxiety is a general state of dread or uneasiness that a person feels in response to a real or imagined danger. People suffering from anxiety disorders feel anxiety but not just normal anxiety. They suffer from anxiety that is out of proportion to the situation provoking it. This intense anxiety may interfere with normal functioning in everyday life. How does the text characterize the anxiety experienced in a clinical disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: Anxiety disorders are the most common type of mental illness in the United States, affecting 19 million Americans annually (NIMH, 2001). These disorders share certain characteristics, including feelings of anxiety and personal inadequacy and an avoidance of dealing with problems. People with anxiety disorders often have unrealistic images of themselves. What is a shared trait among individuals with anxiety disorders mentioned in the text?

Base your answer on the following information: People who are deeply anxious seem unable to free themselves of recurring worries and fears. Their emotional problems may be expressed in constant worrying, sudden mood swings, or a variety of physical symptoms (for example, headaches, sweating, muscle tightness, weakness, and fatigue). Anxious people often have difficulty forming stable and satisfying relationships. According to the passage, how might deep anxiety physically manifest in an individual?

Base your answer on the following information: Even though their behavior may be self-defeating and ineffective in solving problems, those driven by anxiety often refuse to give up their behaviors in favor of more effective ways of dealing with anxiety. In the DSM-IV, the anxiety disorders discussed include generalized anxiety disorder, phobic disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. What does the text suggest about the behavioral patterns of people driven by anxiety?

Base your answer on the following information: Once in a while, everyone feels nervous for reasons he or she cannot explain, but a severely anxious person almost always feels this way. Anxiety is a generalized apprehension—a vague feeling that one is in danger. This anxiety potentially could blossom into full-fledged panic attacks, which may include choking sensations, chest pain, dizziness, trembling, and hot flashes. How is generalized anxiety described in comparison to occasional nervousness?

Base your answer on the following information: Unlike fear, which is a reaction to real and identifiable threats, anxiety is a reaction to vague or imagined dangers. Some people experience a continuous, generalized anxiety. Fearing unknown and unforeseen circumstances, they are unable to make decisions or enjoy life. What distinguishes anxiety from fear according to the provided text?

Base your answer on the following information: They may become so preoccupied with their internal problems that they neglect their social relationships. People who experience generalized anxiety often have trouble dealing with their family and friends and fulfilling their responsibilities, and this adds to their anxiety. They are trapped in a vicious cycle. What "vicious cycle" does the text describe for those with generalized anxiety?

Base your answer on the following information: Often the experience of generalized anxiety is accompanied by physical symptoms such as muscular tension, an inability to relax, a furrowed brow, and a strained face. Poor appetite, indigestion, diarrhea, and frequent urination are also common. Because anxious people are in a constant state of apprehension, they may have difficulty sleeping or, once asleep, may wake up suddenly in the night. What is a common nighttime issue for people with generalized anxiety mentioned in the text?

Base your answer on the following information: Why are some people so anxious? Some theorists stress the role of learning in producing anxiety. If a man feels very anxious on a date, for example, even the thought of another date may make him nervous, so he learns to avoid having dates and therefore never has a chance to unlearn the anxiety. According to the learning theory mentioned, why does avoidance sustain anxiety?

Base your answer on the following information: Other research suggests that anxiety disorders may be partly inherited. Environmental factors, such as unpredictable traumatic experiences in childhood, may also predispose someone to developing an anxiety disorder. Such a disorder usually occurs following a major life change, such as getting a job or having a baby. What typically triggers the onset of an anxiety disorder according to the text?

Base your answer on the following information: When severe anxiety is focused on a particular object, animal, activity, or situation that seems out of proportion to the real dangers involved, it is called a phobic disorder, or phobia. Phobias may be classified as specific phobias, social phobias, and agoraphobia. A specific phobia can focus on almost anything, including high places (acrophobia), enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), and darkness (nyctophobia). How does the text define a phobic disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: Victims of social phobias fear that they will embarrass themselves in a public place or a social setting. Perhaps the most common specific fear is of speaking in public, but others include eating in public, using public restrooms, meeting strangers, and going on a first date. What is a primary concern for individuals with social phobias?

Base your answer on the following information: Phobic individuals develop elaborate plans to avoid the situations they fear. For example, people suffering from an extreme fear of being in a public place (agoraphobia) may stop going to movies or shopping in large, busy stores. Some reach the point where they will not leave their houses at all because that is the only place they feel safe. What behavior do individuals with agoraphobia exhibit to manage their fear?

Base your answer on the following information: Most people deal with phobias by avoiding the thing that frightens them. Thus the phobias are learned and maintained by the reinforcing effects of avoidance, which reduces anxiety but not the phobia. One form of treatment for phobias involves providing the phobic person with opportunities to experience the feared object under conditions in which he or she feels safe. According to the text, why is avoidance a problematic way to deal with a phobia?

Base your answer on the following information: Another kind of anxiety disorder is panic disorder. (Panic is a feeling of sudden, helpless terror, such as the overwhelming fright one might experience when cornered by a predator.) During a panic attack, a victim experiences sudden and unexplainable attacks of intense anxiety, leading the individual to feel a sense of inevitable doom or even the fear that he or she is about to die. What is a key characteristic of a panic attack mentioned in the text?

Base your answer on the following information: Although symptoms of panic disorder differ from individual to individual, they may include a sense of smothering, choking, or difficulty breathing; faintness or dizziness; nausea; and chest pains. Although panic attacks sometimes last for an hour or more, they usually last just a few minutes and occur without warning. How are the physical symptoms of a panic attack described?

Base your answer on the following information: A person suffering from acute anxiety may think the same thoughts over and over. Such an uncontrollable pattern of thoughts is called obsession. A person also may repeatedly perform coping behaviors, called compulsions. A person with an anxiety-based disorder may experience both these agonies together—a condition called obsessive-compulsive disorder. What is the difference between an obsession and a compulsion?

Base your answer on the following information: Psychologists consider it a problem only when such thoughts and activities interfere with what a person wants and needs to do. Someone who spends so much time double-checking every detail of her work that she can never finish a job is considered more anxious than conscientious. When do psychologists classify obsessive-compulsive behaviors as a disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: Post-traumatic stress disorder is a condition in which a person who has experienced a traumatic event feels severe and long-lasting aftereffects. This disorder is common among veterans of military combat and survivors of acts of terrorism, natural disasters such as floods or tornadoes, other catastrophes such as plane crashes, and human aggression such as rape and assault. According to the text, who is likely to experience PTSD?

Base your answer on the following information: Typical symptoms include involuntary flashbacks or recurring nightmares during which the victim reexperiences the ordeal, often followed by insomnia and feelings of guilt. Post-traumatic stress disorder can be extremely long-lasting. What is a common symptom of Post-traumatic stress disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: Post-traumatic stress disorder can be extremely long-lasting. Studies show that survivors of Nazi concentration camps and soldiers returning from war may display symptoms decades after the traumatic event. How long can the symptoms of PTSD last?

Base your answer on the following information: Not everyone who experiences a traumatic event, though, develops post-traumatic stress disorder. People who are exposed repeatedly or over a long period of time to distressing conditions are more likely to develop the disorder. Social support, as discussed in Chapter 15, may protect a victim of trauma from the psychological aftereffects. What factor can help protect a person from developing PTSD?

Base your answer on the following information: Why do people develop obsessions and compulsions? Perhaps it is because they serve as diversions from a person’s real fears and their origins and thus may reduce anxiety somewhat. In addition, compulsions provide a disturbed person with the evidence that she is doing something well, even if it is only avoiding the cracks on a sidewalk. Why might a person perform compulsive behaviors?

Base your answer on the following information: Although most people with obsessive-compulsive disorder realize that their thoughts and actions are irrational, they feel unable to stop them. Obsessive-compulsive disorder does run in families, so there may be a possible genetic basis. How do individuals with OCD typically view their own behaviors?

Base your answer on the following information: Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders Why Can’t the Prince Walk? There is an ancient Persian legend about a physician named Rhazes who was called into the palace for the purpose of diagnosing and treating a young prince. Apparently, the prince could not walk. According to the text, why was the physician Rhazes summoned to the royal palace?

Base your answer on the following information: After the usual examination of the day, Rhazes determined that there was nothing wrong with the prince’s legs, at least not physically. With little more than a hunch, Rhazes set out to treat what may be the first recorded case of conversion. In doing so, he took a risk: Rhazes unexpectedly walked into the prince’s bathroom brandishing a dagger and threatened to kill him. Based on the passage, what conclusion did Rhazes reach regarding the prince's condition?

Base your answer on the following information: Upon seeing him, “the startled prince abruptly fled, leaving his clothes, his dignity, his symptom, and undoubtedly part of his self-esteem behind.” The prince in the excerpt above suffered from a somatoform disorder. These disorders are characterized by physical symptoms brought about by psychological distress. What is the primary characteristic of somatoform disorders according to the provided text?

Base your answer on the following information: Today psychologists treat somatoform disorders with less drastic techniques. Psychologists may challenge conversion patients, attempting to force them out of the symptoms. It is important to note that the prince did not consciously fake his symptoms to avoid pressure or work; it is likely that he honestly could not move his legs. How does the text describe the nature of the prince’s inability to move his legs?

Base your answer on the following information: Psychologists must take this into account when treating such disorders. SOMATOFORM DISORDERS Anxiety can create a wide variety of physical symptoms for which no physical cause is apparent. This phenomenon is known as a somatoform disorder, or hysteria. What occurs during a somatoform disorder as described in the provided sentences?

Base your answer on the following information: The term hysteria was more commonly used in Sigmund Freud’s time to refer to unexplainable fainting, paralysis, or deafness. Today the term somatoform disorder is preferred. Two of the major types of somatoform disorders that psychologists identify are conversion disorders and hypochondriasis. Based on the text, how has the terminology for these disorders changed since Freud's time?

Base your answer on the following information: Conversion Disorders A conversion disorder is the conversion of emotional difficulties into the loss of a specific physiological function. While the loss of functioning is real, no actual physical damage is present. Many people occasionally experience mild conversion disorders, such as when someone is so frightened he or she cannot move, but a conversion disorder is not simply a brief loss of functioning due to fright. According to the text, what defines a conversion disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: It persists. A conversion disorder results in a real and prolonged handicap; the person literally cannot feel anything in his left hand, move his legs, or exercise some other normal physical function. For example, a man might wake up one morning and find himself paralyzed from the waist down. What distinguishes a conversion disorder from a brief moment of fright?

Base your answer on the following information: The normal reaction to this would be panic. However, he might accept the loss of function with relative calm, called la belle indifférence. This calmness is one sign that a person is suffering from a psychological rather than a physiological problem. According to the text, what is "la belle indifférence"?

Base your answer on the following information: Most psychologists believe that people suffering from conversion disorders unconsciously invent physical symptoms to gain freedom from unbearable conflict. For example, a woman who lives in terror of blurting out things that she does not want to say may lose the power of speech. This resolves the conflict about speaking. Conversion disorders are comparatively rare. What is the psychological purpose of symptoms in conversion disorders according to the text?

Base your answer on the following information: Hypochondriasis Conversion disorders must be distinguished from hypochondriasis, in which a person who is in good health becomes preoccupied with imaginary ailments. The hypochondriac spends a lot of time looking for signs of serious illness and often misinterprets minor aches, pains, bruises, or bumps as early signs of a fatal illness. What behavior characterizes a person with hypochondriasis?

Base your answer on the following information: Despite negative results in medical tests and physical evaluations, the hypochondriac typically continues to believe that a disease or malfunction exists. Hypochondriasis occurs mainly during young adulthood and is equally common in men and women. According to psychoanalytic theory, hypochondriasis, like conversion, occurs when an individual represses emotions and then expresses them symbolically in physical symptoms. How does a hypochondriac respond to negative medical test results?

Base your answer on the following information: DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS You have probably had the experience of being lost in a daydream and failing to notice your friend calling your name. This is a normal dissociative experience. A dissociative disorder involves a more significant breakdown in a person’s normal conscious experience, such as a loss of memory or identity. How does the text define a dissociative disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: These psychological phenomena fascinate many people, so we hear a good deal about amnesia and multiple personalities. Actually, they are very rare. Memory loss that has no biological explanation, or dissociative amnesia, may be an attempt to escape from problems by blotting them out completely. What is the goal of dissociative amnesia according to the text?

Base your answer on the following information: Amnesiacs remember how to speak and usually retain a fund of general knowledge, but they may not know who they are, where they live and work, or who their family is. This amnesia should be distinguished from other losses of memory that result from physical brain damage, normal forgetting, or drug abuse. Dissociative amnesia most often results from a traumatic event, such as witnessing a terrible accident. What information do individuals with dissociative amnesia typically lose?

Base your answer on the following information: In dissociative fugue, another type of dissociative reaction, amnesia is coupled with active flight to a different environment. For example, a woman may suddenly disappear and wake up three days later in a restaurant 200 miles from home. If she is not treated, she may actually establish a new identity—assume a new name, marry, take a job, and so forth—in a new place. What defines a dissociative fugue state?

Base your answer on the following information: She may repress all knowledge of a previous life. A fugue state may last for days or for decades. However long it lasts, the individual, when she comes out of it, will have no memory of what happened in the interim. Fugue, then, is a sort of traveling amnesia, and it probably serves the same psychological function as dissociative amnesia, that is, escape from unbearable conflict or anxiety. What happens when an individual emerges from a dissociative fugue?

Base your answer on the following information: In dissociative identity disorder (previously known as multiple personality disorder), a third type of dissociative disorder, someone seems to have two or more distinct identities, each with its own way of thinking and behaving. These different personality states may take control at different times. What is the main feature of dissociative identity disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: Eve White, a young woman who sought psychiatric treatment for severe headaches and blackouts, has become a famous example. Eve White was a conscientious, self-controlled, rather shy person. However, during one of her therapy sessions, her expression—and her personality—suddenly changed. Eve Black, as she now called herself, was childlike, fun-loving, and irresponsible—the opposite of the woman who originally walked into the psychiatrist’s office. How did the personality of Eve Black differ from Eve White?

Base your answer on the following information: Eve Black was conscious of Eve White’s existence but considered her a separate person. Eve White did not know about Eve Black, however, and neither was she conscious of Jane, a third personality that emerged during the course of therapy. (This case served as the basis for the film The Three Faces of Eve.) Some psychologists believe that this dividing up of the personality is the result of the individual’s effort to escape from a part of the self that he or she fears. Based on the text, what was Eve White's awareness of her other personalities?

Base your answer on the following information: The secret self then emerges in the form of a separate personality. Dissociative identity disorder is extremely rare. Eve’s real name is Chris Costner Sizemore, and she published a book, I’m Eve (Sizemore & Pittillo, 1977), many years later, explaining that Eve ultimately had 22 separate personalities. According to the text, how common is dissociative identity disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: Her case is often confused with Sybil, a woman whose 16 personalities were also described in a book and a film. While cases like Eve and Sybil are fascinating, they are extremely rare and very controversial. People diagnosed with this disorder usually suffered severe physical, psychological, or sexual abuse during childhood. Individuals with dissociative disorders have learned to dissociate themselves from such stressful events by selectively forgetting them, thereby reducing the anxiety they feel. What is the typical childhood background of individuals with dissociative identity disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: A woman was delighted to receive a letter from her son abroad, but distraught when she read it: “Dear mother . . . I am writing on paper. The pen I am using is from a factory called Perry and Co. The factory is in England. The city of London is in England.” According to the text, why did the mother become upset after reading her son's letter?

Base your answer on the following information: I know this from my school days. Then I always liked geography. My last teacher in that subject was Professor August A. He was a man with black eyes. There are also blue and grey eyes and other sorts too. I have heard it said that snakes have green eyes. All people have eyes. There are some, too, who are blind. What is the characteristic of the writing style in this portion of the son's letter?

Base your answer on the following information: The man who wrote this letter later was diagnosed with schizophrenia. Sufferers of schizophrenia often have difficulty using language to communicate. They seem to go from one phrase to another by random association. This confused language may result because schizophrenia affects the working memory, which is used to form sentences. According to the text, how does schizophrenia typically affect a person's use of language?

Base your answer on the following information: A person with schizophrenia will not remember the beginning of a sentence and thus finishes it with an unrelated thought. Schizophrenia is often misunderstood. We can understand depression, and most of us have experienced anxiety. In addition, we can appreciate how people with these problems strive to overcome them as best they can. What reason does the text give for why a person with schizophrenia might finish a sentence with an unrelated thought?

Base your answer on the following information: An individual with schizophrenia, however, who withdraws from normal life and whose distorted perceptions and behavior reach an irrational, fantastic, fear-laden, unimaginable level, does so in ways that are difficult to understand. Yet, psychologists are making progress in furthering our understanding of schizophrenia—the most complex and severe psychological problem we encounter. How does the text describe the nature of schizophrenia compared to other psychological problems?

Base your answer on the following information: WHAT IS SCHIZOPHRENIA? While the disorders discussed thus far are primarily problems of emotion, schizophrenia is a problem of cognition, but it also involves emotion, perception, and motor functions. Schizophrenia affects 1 in 100 people worldwide (British Columbia Schizophrenia Society, 1997), but the odds increase to 1 in 10 if schizophrenia is already in the family. According to the text, what is the primary nature of schizophrenia?

Base your answer on the following information: Schizophrenia involves confused and disordered thoughts and perceptions. With schizophrenia, a person’s thought processes are somewhat disturbed, and the person has lost contact with reality to a considerable extent. One expert has noted that someone with depression or severe anxiety problems dreams in an unreal way about life, while a person with schizophrenia lives life as an unreal dream. How does the text differentiate the experience of schizophrenia from that of depression or anxiety?

Base your answer on the following information: Schizophrenia is not a single problem; it has no single cause or cure. Rather, it is a collection of symptoms that indicates an individual has serious difficulty trying to meet the demands of life. Suppose a psychiatrist is interviewing a patient who has just been admitted to a hospital. The individual demonstrates a wide assortment of symptoms. What does the text say schizophrenia indicates about an individual's life?

Base your answer on the following information: He is intensely excited, expresses extreme hostility toward members of his family, and at the same time claims that he loves them, showing conflicting feelings. One minute he is extremely aggressive, questioning the psychiatrist’s motives and even threatening her. The next minute he withdraws and acts as if he does not hear anything she says. Then he begins talking again. “Naturally,” he says, “I am growing my father’s hair.” Which statement would a psychiatrist consider a "diagnostic bell ringer" according to the text?

Base your answer on the following information: Many people with schizophrenia experience delusions—false beliefs maintained in the face of contrary evidence—and hallucinations—perceptions in the absence of corresponding sensation. For example, a person with schizophrenia may perceive a voice when, in fact, there is no sound present. A person with schizophrenia may show a number of other symptoms as well. How does the text define a hallucination in the context of schizophrenia?

Base your answer on the following information: One is incoherence, or a marked decline in thought processes. The language of someone with schizophrenia may be sped up; sometimes, it is described as “word salad”—lots of words thrown together. Another symptom is disturbances of affect, or emotions that are inappropriate for the circumstances. In addition, an individual with schizophrenia may display severe deterioration in normal movement, which may occur as slowed movement, nonmovement, or as highly agitated behavior. What does the term "word salad" refer to in the provided text?

Base your answer on the following information: Another symptom is a marked decline in previous levels of functioning; for example, a sharp dropoff in productivity at work. Yet another symptom is diverted attention, perhaps brought about by cognitive flooding, as if the person is unable to focus his or her attention. TYPES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA Psychologists classify schizophrenia into several subtypes. One, the paranoid type, involves hallucinations and delusions, including grandeur: “I am the savior of my people;” or persecution: “Someone is always watching me”. What characterizes the paranoid type of schizophrenia according to the text?

Base your answer on the following information: People with the catatonic type may remain motionless for long periods, exhibiting a waxy flexibility in which limbs in unusual positions may take a long time to return to a resting, relaxed position—exactly as if melting a wax statue. Symptoms of the disorganized type include incoherent language, inappropriate emotions, giggling for no apparent reason, generally disorganized motor behavior, and hallucinations and delusions. How is the catatonic type of schizophrenia described in the passage?

Base your answer on the following information: Another form of schizophrenia is the remission type. This diagnostic label is applied to anyone whose symptoms are completely gone or still exist but are not severe enough to have earned a diagnosis of schizophrenia in the first place. The expectation is that symptoms will return, so the schizophrenia is simply viewed as in remission. It is sometimes difficult to differentiate between types of schizophrenia because some symptoms are shared by all types. What is the status of symptoms in the remission type of schizophrenia?

Base your answer on the following information: The undifferentiated type encompasses the basic symptoms of schizophrenia, such as deterioration of daily functioning, hallucinations, delusions, inappropriate emotions, and thought disorders. Schizophrenia is a very complex condition, and treatment is long-term and usually requires hospitalization. Long-term institutionalization sometimes leads to a patient who is burned out—one who is unlikely to function normally in society. What is a potential risk of long-term institutionalization for a patient?

Base your answer on the following information: Schizophrenia may go into remission, in which the symptoms disappear and the person seems quite normal, but according to the DSM-IV, adjustment tends to deteriorate between successive episodes of the reappearance of symptoms. Although recovery from schizophrenia is possible, no real cure for schizophrenia exists, and once an individual is diagnosed with schizophrenia, he or she may never escape from it. According to the text, what is the current status of a cure for schizophrenia?

Base your answer on the following information: CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA What is the actual cause of schizophrenia? There are many theories, and just as certainly, there is disagreement among practitioners. In all likelihood, the ultimate cause is an interaction of environmental, genetic, and biochemical factors. According to the text, what factors likely interact to cause schizophrenia?

Base your answer on the following information: Biological Influences Genetics is almost certainly involved in causing schizophrenia. One psychologist (Gottesman, 1991) summarized the results of more than 35 studies conducted in Western Europe from 1920 to 1987. As confirmed by others, he found that there is a 1 percent likelihood that anyone in the general population will develop schizophrenia. These odds, however, increase to 10 percent if schizophrenia is already in the family. How do the odds of developing schizophrenia change if it is already in the family?

Base your answer on the following information: Yet, even among identical twins, if one twin develops schizophrenia, only 48 percent of the twin’s siblings will develop it. This finding implies that other factors in addition to heredity also have a role in the development of schizophrenia. In trying to define the role of genetics more precisely, researchers have studied children born into families where either parent or a parent’s sibling was diagnosed with schizophrenia. What does the 48 percent rate among identical twins imply about schizophrenia?

Base your answer on the following information: Across several studies, if one or more siblings are diagnosed with schizophrenia, other children in the family will later be diagnosed with the condition less than 2 percent of the time. That probability rises to 5.5 percent if a parent or sibling is diagnosed (Mortensen, et al., 1999). Even where both parents were later diagnosed as having schizophrenia, about 50 percent of the children show no signs of schizophrenia. What percentage of children show no signs of schizophrenia even when both parents have it?

Base your answer on the following information: In summary, these studies show that psychologists cannot specify the exact contribution hereditary factors make to schizophrenia (Carson & Sanislow, 1992). Biochemistry and Physiology The proper working of the brain depends on the presence of right amounts of many chemicals, from oxygen to proteins. Some psychologists believe that psychosis is due largely to chemical imbalances in the brain. What do some psychologists believe is a major cause of psychosis?

Base your answer on the following information: According to some theorists, occasionally people are born with a nervous system that gets aroused very easily and takes a long time to return to normal. Such people might be particularly likely to get upset when they are stressed. Chemical problems may also be involved in the occurrence of schizophrenia. A number of researchers believe that the basic problem in schizophrenia is that too much or too little of certain chemicals has upset the brain’s mechanisms for processing information, perhaps interfering with normal synaptic transmission. What is the basic chemical problem in schizophrenia according to some researchers?

Base your answer on the following information: The dopamine hypothesis suggests that an excess of dopamine at selected synapses is related to a diagnosis of schizophrenia. One psychologist (Carlsson, 1988) notes that correlational studies are not enough to demonstrate a direct role for dopamine in schizophrenia. It seems likely that chemicals play a role, but it is hard to tell whether these chemicals are the cause of schizophrenia or the result of it. What does the dopamine hypothesis suggest about schizophrenia?

Base your answer on the following information: Symptoms of schizophrenia may even be caused by the fact that people with schizophrenia tend to live in hospitals, where they get little exercise, eat institutional food, and are usually given daily doses of tranquilizers. Living under such conditions, anyone might develop chemical imbalances and abnormal behavior. The use of CAT and MRI scans has led to the discovery that the brains of people with schizophrenia often show signs of deteriorated brain tissue. According to the text, what has been discovered through the use of CAT and MRI scans?

Base your answer on the following information: One consistent result is that women who at some time develop schizophrenia are likely to have difficult pregnancies and difficulties giving birth. Obesity prior to pregnancy, infection during the second trimester (Wyatt & Susser, 2000), and oxygen deprivation to the fetus (Cannon et al., 2000) are correlated with children developing schizophrenia. The exact role of the environment in fostering schizophrenia is unclear, but it is involved. Which of the following is correlated with children developing schizophrenia according to the text?

Base your answer on the following information: Family and Interactions From Freud onward, it has been tempting to blame the family situation in childhood for problems that develop during adulthood. Paul Meehl (1962, 1989) suggests that bad experiences during childhood are not enough, in and of themselves, to lead to schizophrenia; being part of a pathogenic, or unhealthful, family may contribute to problems in the adult years. What does Paul Meehl suggest about the role of the family in schizophrenia?

Base your answer on the following information: Studies show that families of individuals who later develop schizophrenia are often on the verge of falling apart. Another frequent finding is that family members organize themselves around—or in spite of—the very unusual, demanding, or maladaptive behavior of one member of the family. Communication, too, often seems disorganized in the early family life of people who later develop schizophrenia. What is a common finding regarding communication in the early lives of people with schizophrenia?

Base your answer on the following information: In Summary Which of these theories is correct? At this point, psychologists do not know. It may be that each is partially true. Perhaps people who inherit a tendency toward psychological disorders react more strongly to stressful situations than others would. The diathesis-stress hypothesis states that an individual may have inherited a predisposition toward schizophrenia. What is the core idea of the diathesis-stress hypothesis?

Base your answer on the following information: For schizophrenia to develop, however, that person must be exposed to an environment with certain stressors, such as bad family experiences, before the schizophrenia will develop. Explaining the causes of schizophrenia is perhaps the most complex research problem psychologists face. MOOD DISORDERS We all experience mood swings. Sometimes we are happy or elated, while at other times we feel dejected, miserable, or depressed. What is necessary for schizophrenia to develop according to the diathesis-stress hypothesis?

Base your answer on the following information: Yet even when we are discouraged, most of us still feel we can control our emotions and that these feelings will pass. Occasional depression is a common experience. In some people, however, these moods are more intense and tend to last for longer periods. These individuals often get the sense that their depression will go on forever and that there is nothing they can do to change it. How does the experience of depression differ for some people compared to the general population?

Base your answer on the following information: As a result, their emotions hamper their ability to function effectively. In extreme cases, a mood may cause individuals to lose touch with reality or seriously threaten their health or lives. Major Depressive Disorder Individuals suffering from major depressive disorder spend at least two weeks feeling depressed, sad, anxious, fatigued, and agitated, experiencing a reduced ability to function and interact with others. What is the minimum time period required for a diagnosis of major depressive disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: To be diagnosed as depression, these feelings cannot be attributed to bereavement (the loss of a loved one). This disorder is marked by at least four of the following symptoms: problems with eating, sleeping, thinking, concentrating, or decision making; lacking energy; thinking about suicide; and feeling worthless or guilty (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). According to the text, what condition cannot be the cause of these feelings for a diagnosis of depression?

Base your answer on the following information: Bipolar Disorder One type of mood disorder is bipolar disorder, in which individuals are excessively and inappropriately happy or unhappy. These reactions may take the form of high elation, hopeless depression, or an alternation between the two. In the manic phase, a person experiences elation, extreme confusion, distractibility, and racing thoughts. What are the symptoms of the manic phase in bipolar disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: Often the person has an exaggerated sense of self-esteem and engages in irresponsible behavior, such as shopping sprees or insulting remarks. As an example, consider the following behavior: On admission she slapped the nurse, addressed the house physician as God, made the sign of the cross, and laughed loudly when she was asked to don the hospital garb. What kind of behavior is typical during a manic episode?

Base your answer on the following information: This she promptly tore to shreds. . . . She sang at the top of her voice, screamed through the window, and leered at the patients promenading in the recreation yard. (Karnash, 1945) Often, this state is not as easy to detect as some others because the person seems to be in touch with reality and blessed with an unending sense of optimism. Why might a manic state be difficult to detect according to the text?

Base your answer on the following information: During a manic episode, a person may behave as if he or she needs less sleep, and the activity level typically increases, as does the loudness and the frequency with which he or she speaks. In the depressive phase, the individual is overcome by feelings of failure, sinfulness, worthlessness, and despair. How does the activity level change during a manic episode?

Base your answer on the following information: In contrast to the optimism and high activity of a manic-type reaction, a depressive-type reaction is marked by lethargy, despair, and unresponsiveness. The behavior of someone who is depressed in a bipolar disorder is essentially the same as someone with a major depressive disorder (Perris, 1982). What marks a depressive-type reaction in bipolar disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: Usually he did not respond at all to questions, but sometimes, after apparently great effort, he would mumble something about the “Scourge of God.” (Morris & Maisto, 2000) In some cases, a patient will alternate between frantic action and motionless despair. Some people experience occasional episodes of a manic-type or depressive-type reaction, separated by long intervals of relatively normal behavior. How do some patients' moods change in bipolar disorder?

Base your answer on the following information: Others exhibit almost no normal behavior, cycling instead from periods of manic-type reactions to equally intense depressive-type reactions. Some theorists have speculated that the manic periods serve as an attempt to ward off the underlying hopelessness of the depressive periods. Others believe that mania can be traced to the same biochemical disorder responsible for depression. What do some theorists speculate is the purpose of manic periods?

Base your answer on the following information: Seasonal Affective Disorder Many of us may feel a tinge of sadness when looking at a mid-February landscape of dull grays and browns. However, there are people who develop a deep depression in the midst of winter. These people are victims of seasonal affective disorder, or SAD. What is Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) as described in the text?

Base your answer on the following information: Throughout the winter they struggle with depression; their spirits lift only with the coming of spring. (People may also suffer annual depressions during the summer.) People suffering from SAD tend to sleep and eat excessively during their depressed periods. What behavior is common for people suffering from SAD during their depressed periods?

Base your answer on the following information: Researchers have proposed that the hormone melatonin may play a role. The less light available (in winter), the more melatonin is secreted by the brain’s pineal gland. A higher level of melatonin in their blood levels may cause some people to suffer from SAD. What hormone do researchers believe may play a role in SAD?

Base your answer on the following information: Many SAD sufferers can be treated by sitting under bright fluorescent lights during the evening or early morning hours. Explaining Mood Disorders Psychological factors underlying mood disorders include certain personality traits (such as self-esteem), amount of social support, and the ability to deal with stressful situations. How can many sufferers of SAD be treated according to the text?

Base your answer on the following information: The cognitive theories of Aaron Beck and Martin Seligman have often served as the basis for research on depression. Beck (1983) believes that depressed people draw illogical conclusions about themselves; they blame themselves for normal problems and consider every minor failure a catastrophe. What does Aaron Beck believe characterizes the thoughts of depressed people?

Base your answer on the following information: As described in Chapter 9, Martin Seligman (1975) believes that depression is caused by a feeling of learned helplessness. The depressed person learns to believe that he has no control over events in his life and that it is useless even to try. According to Martin Seligman, what is a cause of depression?

Base your answer on the following information: Psychologists developed theories to provide a physiological or biological explanation of depression. Researchers are currently searching for the neurotransmitters (such as serotonin and noradrenaline) that cause mood disorders. They are also looking at genetic factors and faulty brain structure and function as possible causes. What are researchers currently searching for as a biological cause of mood disorders?

Base your answer on the following information: Suicide and Depression Not all people who commit suicide are depressed, and not all depressed people attempt suicide. Many depressives, though, do think about suicide, and some of them translate these thoughts into action. People may take their lives for any number of reasons. What does the text say about the relationship between depression and suicide?

Base your answer on the following information: It may be to escape from physical or emotional pain—perhaps a terminal illness or the loneliness of old age. It might be an effort to end the torment of unacceptable feelings, to punish themselves for wrongs they think they have committed, or to punish others who have not perceived their needs (Mintz, 1968). In many cases we simply do not know why the suicide occurred. What is one reason people might take their lives according to the passage?

Base your answer on the following information: Statistics show, however, that every year more than 30,000 Americans end their lives—about 1 every 20 minutes. More women than men attempt suicide, but more men than women succeed (see Figure 16.14). Suicide is most common among the elderly but also ranks as the second most common cause of death among college students. What do the statistics show about suicide rates among men and women?

Base your answer on the following information: Contrary to popular belief, people who threaten suicide or make an unsuccessful attempt usually are serious. Studies show that about 70 percent of people who kill themselves had threatened to do so within the three months preceding the suicide, and an unsuccessful attempt is often a trial run (American Foundation for Suicide Prevention, 1999). What does the text say about people who make an unsuccessful suicide attempt?