1107 crash course to greatness

1107 crash course to greatness

Hello! This is a completely optional assignment designed to help you prep for the final. If you have reviewed the content and feel confident feel free to skip it!

Organic Molecules

• Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), and Nitrogen (N) are the most abundant elements in living organisms

• Carbon = organic

• No Carbon = inorganic

Fill in the Blank

H₂O₂, Fe₂O₃, Al (OH)₃, and SiO₂ are examples of ________ compounds

Biological Macromolecules

monomer = singular unit

multiple monomers make a polymer

***Lipids- the exception to the rule- not considered polymers but molecules link together in the same way and they act the same

Multiple Choice

Which biological macromolecules do not have a monomer?

• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

• Protein

• Nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

• Carbon, hydrogen, and Oxygen

• Energy storage (long and short term)

• Structural support

• Polymers - glycogen, cellulose, and starch

• Monomers - glucose, fructose, and galactose

Proteins

• Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

• Transport, structural support, communication, catalysis

• No energy storage or information storage

• Polymers - polypeptide chains

• Monomers - amino acids

Nucleic Acids

• carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and

  phosphorous

• Information storage

• Polymers - DNA and RNA

• Monomers - nucleotides with a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base

Lipids

• Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosporos

• Insulation, energy storage (long term), chemical signals

• Fatty Acids, triglycerides, phospholipids

Multiple Choice

Which of the following organic groups contains polymers consisting of

C and H tails ?

• Carbohydrates

• Amino Acids

• Proteins

• Triglycerides

• DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS / CONDENSATION REACTION

• Joining of monomers

• Two Hydrogen and one Oxygen join together to produce a water molecule

• HYDROLYSIS

• Breaking of bond between monomers by adding a water molecule

Multiple Choice

In a condensation reaction, where do the two hydrogen and oxygen come from

• The surrounding environment

• From the two molecules being joined together

• From the water molecule

Multiple Select

What does this picture represent?

• Hydrolysis

• Condensation reaction

• Dehydration synthesis

Multiple Choice

In dehydration reactions, two monomers are linked together by removing what compound?

• CO₂

• O₂

• H₂O₂

• H₂O

​Cells: Plasma membrane, Diffusion, Osmosis, Oh My!

• ​Plasma membrane is selectively permeable and made up of the phospholipid bilayer with proteins distributed throughout

• ​Phospholipids have

  • a polar, phosphate group head

  • ​a non-polar, hydrocarbon tail

• non-polar tails face inward

• phosphate group heads face outward to interact with environment inside and outside the cell

​Proteins and carbohydrates

• ​Proteins are distributed throughout the cell

• They provide structure and transportation

• ​Carbohydrates are typically attached to the outer membrane and interact with the environment

​diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, and osmosis

• ​Diffusion- movement of solutes from high concentration to low concentration. No energy

• ​Facilitated diffusion- large polar solutes with the assistance of proteins in the membrane

• ​Active transport- movement of solutes across the membrane against the concentration gradient. Requires energy

• ​Osmosis- movement of water across the membrane

Multiple Select

The movement of water from high concentration to low concentration in an effort to make solute concentrations equal is

• diffusion

• water potential

• active diffusion

• osmosis

​Hyper, Hypo, and Isotonic

• ​Hypertonic - Higher concentration of solutes

• ​Hypotonic - lower concentration of solutes

• ​Isotonic - equal concentration of solutes

• Terms can not be stand alone, they have to be used in comparison. ex: solution A is hypertonic to solution B.

• High water potential = low solute concentration

• Low water potential = high solute concentration​

Multiple Choice

Which statement is true/correct

• Solution B is hypertonic to solution A, therefore solution A has higher water potential

• Solution A is isotonic

• Solution B is hypertonic to solution A, therefore solution B has higher water potential

• Solution A is hypotonic and has higher water potential

Fill in the Blank

What is one thing you should never do when using a pipette?

Multiple Choice

Is this pipette being held correctly?

• yes

• no

Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reactions

• Even though hydrogen peroxide is often a common household item it can be very harmful

• Most biological organisms are capable of converting hydrogen peroxide into benign molecules of water and oxygen

• Energy is required to break the bonds of the reactant

Activation Energy (E_A)

• The energy required to start a chemical reaction is ACTIVATION ENERGY

• Measured in kilojoules per mole (KJ/mol)

• The amount of E_A varies for different chemical reactions

Biological Catalyst

• Catalysts are also called enzymes

• enzymes are proteins that help speed up reactions

• https://youtu.be/qgVFkRn8f10

Enzyme not working?

• The enzyme activation site is very specific to its reactants and will only work with reactants that fit

• Inhibitors are molecules that can block the activations site so the reactants cannot bind

• Enzymes have optimal conditions they require to work properly, pH and temperature

• Denaturing occurs when an enzyme is outside its optimal conditions

Fill in the Blank

True or False: A particular enzyme can only catalyze a specific type of chemical reaction.

Multiple Choice

What happens to an enzyme after it has catalyzed a reaction?

• It becomes denatured

• It is left unchanged and ready to be used again

• it is released as energy

• it binds with the products

Multiple Choice

Which of the following statements about enzymes is TRUE?

• Enzymes can be used on different reactions

• Enzyme activity is influenced by environmental conditions (Temp., pH, ect.)

• All proteins are enzymes

• enzymes decelerate the rate of a reaction

Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

• Process used to generate ATP from glucose/carbohydrates (most organisms)

• ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is used to store and transfer energy

• Energy is released when ATP undergoes a hydrolysis reaction, removing a phosphate group, releasing a large amount of energy

Cellular Respiration

• Occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells (cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells)

• Aerobic respiration- meaning it requires oxygen

Glycolysis

• The first stage of cellular respiration

• Two molecules of pyruvic acid

• Two molecules of ATP

Citric Acid Cycle

• Second stage of cellular respiration

• the 2 pyruvic acid molecules are converted into 2 molecules of Acetyl CoA

• Acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle and is converted into 2 molecules of carbon dioxide

Electron Transport Chain

• Last stage of cellular respiration

• Produces 30-32 ATP

• https://youtu.be/4Eo7JtRA7lg

Fermintation

• occurs in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

• Anaerobic respiration (no Oxygen)

• Two types: Ethanol and lactic acid

• The first step for both ethanol and lactic acid fermintation is Glycolysis, which produces 2 pyruvic acid and 2 ATP

Lactic Acid Fermintation

• converts the pyruvic acid from glycolysis into lactic acid

• This is the type of fermentation used by the muscles as they run out of oxygen during strenuous activity

• there is no additional ATP produced

Ethanol fermentation

• The pyruvic acid from glycolysis is converted into ethanol with CO₂ as a byproduct

Fill in the Blank

Which is more efficient, cellular respiration or fermentation, and why?

Multiple Choice

Which of the following statements regarding aerobic respiration is TRUE?

• Occurs in prokaryotic cells only.

• Consists only of the electron transport chain.

• Produces O2 as a waste product.

• Occurs in the absence of O2.

• Yields a approximately of 32 ATP per glucose.

Fill in the Blank

Cellular respiration occurs in the ___________ of prokaryotic cells

Fill in the Blank

For each molecule of glucose, how many ATPs are generated during anaerobic respiration (glycolysis + fermentation)?

Cell Division

• Multicellular organisms have two types of cells - gamete or somatic

• Mitosis

• Meiosis

Mitosis

• Somatic Cells / autosomal

• Two sets of chromosomes

• 6 stages that result in two identical daughter cells

Interphase

• Cell spends 90% of time in interphase

• 3 stages: G_1, S, G₂

• G₁ - Cell size will increase as cytoplasm and number of organelles increases

• S- DNA replication occurs

• G₂- similar to G_1, this is the stage the cell will receive the signal to divide, without that signal the cell will stay in this phase

Prophase

• DNA condenses into chromosomes

• formation of centromsome and microtubuals on eather end of the cell occurs

• chromosomes become visible under light microscope

• 
  

• 
  

Metaphase

• Microtubules pull chromosomes equally from both sides

• Chromosomes are lined up down the center of the cell

Anaphase

• Microtubules continue to pull towards opposite sides of the cell until chromatids separate

Telophase

• The chromatids are on opposite ends of the

• Nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes

• cells begin to "pinch-off" this is known as cytokinesis

• chromosomes unravel and cells return to interphase

Fill in the Blank

In what phase of mitosis will chromosomes separate and be pulled towards opposite sides of the cells?

Fill in the Blank

True/False: The process of mitosis will divide a diploid cell into two genetically distinct daughter cells

Meiosis

• 10 stages that result in 4 distinct haploid cells

• essentially two rounds of

• Prophase I is identical to mitosis with the exception of the occurrence of genetic recombination or crossover

• Prometaphase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I are identical to the stages of mitosis

Meiosis II

• There is no interphase between telophase I and prophase II

• prophase II, prometaphase II, metaphase II, anaphase II are identical the phases of mitosis

• Telophase II is similar to that of meiosis I and mitosis with the exception of the 4 haploid daughter cells that are produced

• 
  

Multiple Choice

what cells are formed in meiosis

• gametic

• somatic

Multiple Select

When do eukaryotic cells replicate their DNA?

• G₁ phase

• prophase

• S phase

• G₂ phase

• Metaphase

Multiple Choice

Which of the following cells undergo meiosis?

• Muscle cells

• epithelial cells

• nerve cells

• ovarian cells

Mendelian Genetics

• Genome - genetic makeup of organisms

• Genes - segments of the genome that produce observable characteristics

• Alleles are different versions of the same gene

• Each gene has two alleles

Mendel's law of segregation

• The probability of passing on either allele to a gamete is 50%

Mendel's law of independent assortment

• inheritance of one gene is not influenced by another gene

• only applies to genes that are not linked

Chi-Square Analysis

• Statistical test to see if observations match expectations

• X² is compared to a critical value (set value )

• Degrees of freedom (df) determine what critical value is used

• df= n-1 where n = the number of categories counted (phenotypes)

• if X² is less than the critical value, your observations match your expectations

Fill in the Blank

True/False: Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment states that 2 alleles of a gene separate during mitosis and randomly reform during fertilization.

Multiple Choice

A dihybrid cross tracks the inheritance of:

• similar traits

• one characteristic

• two characteristics

• 3 or more characteristics

• dissimilar traits

Multiple Choice

You discover a cave with a new species of bat. There are 2965 brown bats and 6341 black bats. Using chi-square analysis is Mendel's law of segregation supported? Your critical value is 3.84

• No, because the x² is equal to .233 and lower than the the critical value

• Yes, because the x² is equal to .233 and lower than the critical value

• No, because the x² is equal to 233.2 and greater than the critical value

• Yes, because the x² is equal to 233.2 and greater than the critical value

​DNA replication, RNA transcription and Translation

• ​

​DNA Profiling

• ​VNTRs- variable number tandem repeats are short repeating sequences of nucleotides in the human genome, that are unique person to person but relatives will have similar VNTRs

• ​Fragments can be compared to determine relation or when solving crimes

• ​PCR- polymerase chain reaction is a technique used to replicate DNA when a sample is too small

​Red blood cells lack a nucleus and

therefore cannot be used

Multiple Choice

Looking at the Gel which sample is most likely the child's mother?

• A

• B

• C

• D

• None

Multiple Choice

Which is NOT one of the 4 basic tissue types?

• connective

• nervous

• muscle

• cardiac

Multiple Select

The epithelium best adapted to prevent abrasion is:

• stratified squamous

• simple squamous

• simple cuboidal

• pseudostratified columnar

Fill in the Blank

What type of tissue helps attach bones to other bones

Fill in the Blank

A neuron is an example of what kind of tissue?

​Plant tissue

• Vascular plants are classified as seedless vascular plants or seeded vascular plants

• ​Angiosperms are flowering plants that reproduce using seeds enclosed within fruit

• ​Fruits are the enlarged ovary of the flowering plant

​Plant Tissue

• ​​Shoot system - plant body above ground.

  • ​Stem supports leaves and flowers

  • Nodes - leave attachment point.

  • Terminal buds- found at tip of stem, sight of vertical growth. Produces hormone to prevent growth from axillary bud, focusing growth upward

  • Axillary buds- found between stem and leaves.​

​Plant tissue

• ​​Root system - plant body below ground. Provides stability, anchors plant, and absorbs water and minerals

• ​Blade (leaves)- main sight of photosynthesis

• ​Petiole- attachment sight of blade.

  • ​if one leaf is attached at petiol it is a simple leaf

  • ​if multiple blades are attached it is a compound leaf

Dermal Vascular & Ground

• ​Dermal - outermost lay of plant. Acts like our skin. keeps in water and prevents infection.

• ​Vascular - support and transports water, sugars, & minerals. Two tissue types: xylem (water) and phloem (sugars)

• ​Ground - support, storage, photosynthesis

Multiple Choice

Ground tissue type is only found in the roots of the plant

• true

• false

Multiple Choice

We can see the rings of a tree because of the vascular cambium

• True

• False

Multiple Select

An apple indicates these key things about a plant:

• It is a seeded vascular plant

• It is an angiosperm

• It reproduces via seeds

• The apple is actually the enlarged ovary of a plant

• Apple trees and other angiosperms are important to human populations