1107 crash course to greatness

1107 crash course to greatness

Hello! This is a completely optional assignment designed to help you prep for the final. If you have reviewed the content and feel confident feel free to skip it!

Organic Molecules

• Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), and Nitrogen (N) are the most abundant elements in living organisms

• Carbon = organic

• No Carbon = inorganic

Biological Macromolecules

monomer = singular unit

multiple monomers make a polymer

***Lipids- the exception to the rule- not considered polymers but molecules link together in the same way and they act the same

Multiple Choice

Which biological macromolecules do not have a monomer?

• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

• Protein

• Nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

• Carbon, hydrogen, and Oxygen

• Energy storage (long and short term)

• Structural support

• Polymers - glycogen, cellulose, and starch

• Monomers - glucose, fructose, and galactose

Proteins

• Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

• Transport, structural support, communication, catalysis

• No energy storage or information storage

• Polymers - polypeptide chains

• Monomers - amino acids

Nucleic Acids

• carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and

  phosphorous

• Information storage

• Polymers - DNA and RNA

• Monomers - nucleotides with a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base

Lipids

• Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosporos

• Insulation, energy storage (long term), chemical signals

• Fatty Acids, triglycerides, phospholipids

Multiple Choice

Which of the following organic groups contains polymers consisting of

C and H tails ?

• Carbohydrates

• Amino Acids

• Proteins

• Triglycerides

• DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS / CONDENSATION REACTION

• Joining of monomers

• Two Hydrogen and one Oxygen join together to produce a water molecule

• HYDROLYSIS

• Breaking of bond between monomers by adding a water molecule

Multiple Choice

In a condensation reaction, where do the two hydrogen and oxygen come from

• The surrounding environment

• From the two molecules being joined together

• From the water molecule

Multiple Select

What does this picture represent?

• Hydrolysis

• Condensation reaction

• Dehydration synthesis

Multiple Choice

In dehydration reactions, two monomers are linked together by removing what compound?

• CO₂

• O₂

• H₂O₂

• H₂O

​Cells: Plasma membrane, Diffusion, Osmosis, Oh My!

• ​Plasma membrane is selectively permeable and made up of the phospholipid bilayer with proteins distributed throughout

• ​Phospholipids have

  • a polar, phosphate group head

  • ​a non-polar, hydrocarbon tail

• non-polar tails face inward

• phosphate group heads face outward to interact with environment inside and outside the cell

​Proteins and carbohydrates

• ​Proteins are distributed throughout the cell

• They provide structure and transportation

• ​Carbohydrates are typically attached to the outer membrane and interact with the environment

​diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, and osmosis

• ​Diffusion- movement of solutes from high concentration to low concentration. No energy

• ​Facilitated diffusion- large polar solutes with the assistance of proteins in the membrane

• ​Active transport- movement of solutes across the membrane against the concentration gradient. Requires energy

• ​Osmosis- movement of water across the membrane

Multiple Select

The movement of water from high concentration to low concentration in an effort to make solute concentrations equal is

• diffusion

• water potential

• active diffusion

• osmosis

​Hyper, Hypo, and Isotonic

• ​Hypertonic - Higher concentration of solutes

• ​Hypotonic - lower concentration of solutes

• ​Isotonic - equal concentration of solutes

• Terms can not be stand alone, they have to be used in comparison. ex: solution A is hypertonic to solution B.

• High water potential = low solute concentration

• Low water potential = high solute concentration​

Multiple Choice

Which statement is true/correct

• Solution B is hypertonic to solution A, therefore solution A has higher water potential

• Solution A is isotonic

• Solution B is hypertonic to solution A, therefore solution B has higher water potential

• Solution A is hypotonic and has higher water potential

Fill in the Blanks

Multiple Choice

Is this pipette being held correctly?

• yes

• no

Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reactions

• Even though hydrogen peroxide is often a common household item it can be very harmful

• Most biological organisms are capable of converting hydrogen peroxide into benign molecules of water and oxygen

• Energy is required to break the bonds of the reactant

Activation Energy (E_A)

• The energy required to start a chemical reaction is ACTIVATION ENERGY

• Measured in kilojoules per mole (KJ/mol)

• The amount of E_A varies for different chemical reactions

Biological Catalyst

• Catalysts are also called enzymes

• enzymes are proteins that help speed up reactions

• https://youtu.be/qgVFkRn8f10

Enzyme not working?

• The enzyme activation site is very specific to its reactants and will only work with reactants that fit

• Inhibitors are molecules that can block the activations site so the reactants cannot bind

• Enzymes have optimal conditions they require to work properly, pH and temperature

• Denaturing occurs when an enzyme is outside its optimal conditions

Multiple Choice

What happens to an enzyme after it has catalyzed a reaction?

• It becomes denatured

• It is left unchanged and ready to be used again

• it is released as energy

• it binds with the products

Multiple Choice

Which of the following statements about enzymes is TRUE?

• Enzymes can be used on different reactions

• Enzyme activity is influenced by environmental conditions (Temp., pH, ect.)

• All proteins are enzymes

• enzymes decelerate the rate of a reaction

Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

• Process used to generate ATP from glucose/carbohydrates (most organisms)

• ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is used to store and transfer energy

• Energy is released when ATP undergoes a hydrolysis reaction, removing a phosphate group, releasing a large amount of energy

Cellular Respiration

• Occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells (cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells)

• Aerobic respiration- meaning it requires oxygen

Glycolysis

• The first stage of cellular respiration

• Two molecules of pyruvic acid

• Two molecules of ATP

Citric Acid Cycle

• Second stage of cellular respiration

• the 2 pyruvic acid molecules are converted into 2 molecules of Acetyl CoA

• Acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle and is converted into 2 molecules of carbon dioxide

Electron Transport Chain

• Last stage of cellular respiration

• Produces 30-32 ATP

• https://youtu.be/4Eo7JtRA7lg

Fermintation

• occurs in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

• Anaerobic respiration (no Oxygen)

• Two types: Ethanol and lactic acid

• The first step for both ethanol and lactic acid fermintation is Glycolysis, which produces 2 pyruvic acid and 2 ATP

Lactic Acid Fermintation

• converts the pyruvic acid from glycolysis into lactic acid

• This is the type of fermentation used by the muscles as they run out of oxygen during strenuous activity

• there is no additional ATP produced

Ethanol fermentation

• The pyruvic acid from glycolysis is converted into ethanol with CO₂ as a byproduct

Multiple Choice

Which of the following statements regarding aerobic respiration is TRUE?

• Occurs in prokaryotic cells only.

• Consists only of the electron transport chain.

• Produces O2 as a waste product.

• Occurs in the absence of O2.

• Yields a approximately of 32 ATP per glucose.

Cell Division

• Multicellular organisms have two types of cells - gamete or somatic

• Mitosis

• Meiosis

Mitosis

• Somatic Cells / autosomal

• Two sets of chromosomes

• 6 stages that result in two identical daughter cells

Interphase

• Cell spends 90% of time in interphase

• 3 stages: G_1, S, G₂

• G₁ - Cell size will increase as cytoplasm and number of organelles increases

• S- DNA replication occurs

• G₂- similar to G_1, this is the stage the cell will receive the signal to divide, without that signal the cell will stay in this phase

Prophase

• DNA condenses into chromosomes

• formation of centromsome and microtubuals on eather end of the cell occurs

• chromosomes become visible under light microscope

• 
  

• 
  

Metaphase

• Microtubules pull chromosomes equally from both sides

• Chromosomes are lined up down the center of the cell

Anaphase

• Microtubules continue to pull towards opposite sides of the cell until chromatids separate

Telophase

• The chromatids are on opposite ends of the

• Nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes

• cells begin to "pinch-off" this is known as cytokinesis

• chromosomes unravel and cells return to interphase

Meiosis

• 10 stages that result in 4 distinct haploid cells

• essentially two rounds of

• Prophase I is identical to mitosis with the exception of the occurrence of genetic recombination or crossover

• Prometaphase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I are identical to the stages of mitosis

Meiosis II

• There is no interphase between telophase I and prophase II

• prophase II, prometaphase II, metaphase II, anaphase II are identical the phases of mitosis

• Telophase II is similar to that of meiosis I and mitosis with the exception of the 4 haploid daughter cells that are produced

• 
  

Multiple Choice

what cells are formed in meiosis

• gametic

• somatic

Multiple Select

When do eukaryotic cells replicate their DNA?

• G₁ phase

• prophase

• S phase

• G₂ phase

• Metaphase

Multiple Choice

Which of the following cells undergo meiosis?

• Muscle cells

• epithelial cells

• nerve cells

• ovarian cells

Mendelian Genetics

• Genome - genetic makeup of organisms

• Genes - segments of the genome that produce observable characteristics

• Alleles are different versions of the same gene

• Each gene has two alleles

Mendel's law of segregation

• The probability of passing on either allele to a gamete is 50%

Mendel's law of independent assortment

• inheritance of one gene is not influenced by another gene

• only applies to genes that are not linked

Chi-Square Analysis

• Statistical test to see if observations match expectations

• X² is compared to a critical value (set value )

• Degrees of freedom (df) determine what critical value is used

• df= n-1 where n = the number of categories counted (phenotypes)

• if X² is less than the critical value, your observations match your expectations

Multiple Choice

A dihybrid cross tracks the inheritance of:

• similar traits

• one characteristic

• two characteristics

• 3 or more characteristics

• dissimilar traits

Multiple Choice

You discover a cave with a new species of bat. There are 2965 brown bats and 6341 black bats. Using chi-square analysis is Mendel's law of segregation supported? Your critical value is 3.84

• No, because the x² is equal to .233 and lower than the the critical value

• Yes, because the x² is equal to .233 and lower than the critical value

• No, because the x² is equal to 233.2 and greater than the critical value

• Yes, because the x² is equal to 233.2 and greater than the critical value

​DNA replication, RNA transcription and Translation

• ​

​DNA Profiling

• ​VNTRs- variable number tandem repeats are short repeating sequences of nucleotides in the human genome, that are unique person to person but relatives will have similar VNTRs

• ​Fragments can be compared to determine relation or when solving crimes

• ​PCR- polymerase chain reaction is a technique used to replicate DNA when a sample is too small

​Red blood cells lack a nucleus and

therefore cannot be used

Multiple Choice

Looking at the Gel which sample is most likely the child's mother?

• A

• B

• C

• D

• None

Multiple Choice

Which is NOT one of the 4 basic tissue types?

• connective

• nervous

• muscle

• cardiac

Multiple Select

The epithelium best adapted to prevent abrasion is:

• stratified squamous

• simple squamous

• simple cuboidal

• pseudostratified columnar

​Plant tissue

• Vascular plants are classified as seedless vascular plants or seeded vascular plants

• ​Angiosperms are flowering plants that reproduce using seeds enclosed within fruit

• ​Fruits are the enlarged ovary of the flowering plant

​Plant Tissue

• ​​Shoot system - plant body above ground.

  • ​Stem supports leaves and flowers

  • Nodes - leave attachment point.

  • Terminal buds- found at tip of stem, sight of vertical growth. Produces hormone to prevent growth from axillary bud, focusing growth upward

  • Axillary buds- found between stem and leaves.​

​Plant tissue

• ​​Root system - plant body below ground. Provides stability, anchors plant, and absorbs water and minerals

• ​Blade (leaves)- main sight of photosynthesis

• ​Petiole- attachment sight of blade.

  • ​if one leaf is attached at petiol it is a simple leaf

  • ​if multiple blades are attached it is a compound leaf

Dermal Vascular & Ground

• ​Dermal - outermost lay of plant. Acts like our skin. keeps in water and prevents infection.

• ​Vascular - support and transports water, sugars, & minerals. Two tissue types: xylem (water) and phloem (sugars)

• ​Ground - support, storage, photosynthesis

Multiple Choice

Ground tissue type is only found in the roots of the plant

• true

• false

Multiple Choice

We can see the rings of a tree because of the vascular cambium

• True

• False

Multiple Select

An apple indicates these key things about a plant:

• It is a seeded vascular plant

• It is an angiosperm

• It reproduces via seeds

• The apple is actually the enlarged ovary of a plant

• Apple trees and other angiosperms are important to human populations