Biology Praxis- Genetics & Evolution

Biology Praxis- Genetics & Evolution

By E James

https://www.cram.com/flashcards/biology-praxis-genetics-evolution-12740458

• Traits and alleles

• genotype and phenotype

• homozygous and heterozygous

• dominant vs recessive

• haploid, diploid, polyploid

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Genetics is the study of heredity, which is how characteristics are passed from parents to offspring.

Mendelian Genetics (classical genetics)

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​Vocabulary

1. law of segregation - when an organism form gametes (sex cells), each gamete receives one randomly selected allele of each trait

2. law of independent assortment - genes separate and recombine independently of one another; every combination of alleles have the same chance of occurrence

3. law of dominance - in a heterozygote, one trait will mask the presence of another trait for the same characteristic; the one that does the masking is the dominant trait and the one that is masked is the recessive trait

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Subject | Subject

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Multiple Choice

Which law states that genes separate into distinct alleles during gamete formation?

• law of inheritance

• law of dominance

• law of independent assortment

• law of segregation

​All of Mendel's laws are collectively referred to as the laws of inheritance.

The law of dominance states that the dominant allele of a pair will be expressed as a trait.

The law of independent assortment states that genes divide and recombine independently of one another.​

​The law of segregation states that alleles segregate independently during meiosis.

Multiple Choice

Select the one that is NOT a scenario in which the dominant allele will be expressed as a trait.

• a recessive allele from the father paired with another recessive allele from the mother

• a dominant allele frot he father paired with another dominant allele from the mother

• a recessive allele from the mother paired with a dominant allele from the father

• a recessive allele from the father paired with a dominant allele from the mother

​One recessive trait paired with another recessive is homozygous recessive, which is the only way a dominant trait will NOT be expressed.

If one allele is dominant (heterozygous) then the dominant trait will mask the recessive trait.

If both alleles are dominant (homozygous dominant), then the dominant trait is the only trait that can be expressed.

Subject | Subject

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​Genetic crosses

• P generation, F₁ generation, F₂ generation

• monohybrid cross, dihybrid cross

• Punnet Square

• ​Genotypic ratio, phenotypic ratio

• Probabilities​

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Multiple Choice

What is the purpose of genetic crosses?

• to determine the probability of an expressed phenotype

• to isolate and study inherited traits through generations

• to manipulate the traits of offspring

• to create a new set of traits

​The purpose of genetic crosses is to isolate and study inherited traits through generations.

The purpose of a Punnett Square is to determine the probability of an expressed phenotype.

The manipulation of traits and the creation of new traits can be applications of information learned from genetic crossing., but not the purpose of the experiment as defined.

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Multiple Choice

What is the probability that an offspring of a cross between 2 parents who are heterozygous for a particular trait will express the recessive trait?

• 100%

• 75%

• 50%

• 25%

​In order for the recessive trait to be expressed, the genotype has to be homozygous recessive. Only 25% or 1/4 box shows that.

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75% of the offspring would show the dominant trait - 25% homozygous dominant and 50% heterozygous.

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Mendelian inheritance

non-Mendelian inheritance

• ​incomplete dominance

• codominance

• multiple alleles

• polygenic ingeritance

• gene linkage

• sex-linked genes​

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​Pedigree Analysis

Multiple Choice

This pedigree analysis shows the inheritance of the gene for cystic fibrosis through three generations. Which of the following is true about this genetic condition?

• The trait is dominant.

• Only the P generation carries the trait.

• Only the F₂ generation carries the trait.

• The trait is recessive.

The trait is carried in all three generations but is only expressed in the F₂ generation, indicating this is a recessive trait.

A dominant trait would be expressed in all 3 generations.

The trait is carried in all three generations.​

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following is true about recessive X-linked genetic traits?

• They are carried by females but primarily expressed in males.

• They are only expressed in females.

• They are only expressed in males.

• They are carried by males but primarily expressed in females.

Females carry recessive X-linked traits but do not necessarily express them because most often they are heterozygous, while males express a disproportionate number of these traits since they only have one X chromosome.​

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Recessive X-linked traits can be expressed by both males and females, but are more common in men.

Both males and females carry x-linked traits, but males tend to express the traits much more often.​

Subject | Subject

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Multiple Choice

Select the true statement about the relative locations of linked genes.

• They are located near each other on the same chromosome.

• They are located at opposite ends of the same chromosome.

• They are located near each other on separate chromosomes.

• They are located at opposite ends of separate chromosomes.

Genes must be located near one another on the same chromosomal structure in order to be linked.​

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The further apart the genes are, the less likely they will be linked.

Genes that are on different chromosomes cannot be linked.​

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Multiple Choice

Type AB blood - the expression of both A and B antigen on a red blood cell surface - occurs as the result of which of the following?

• incomplete dominance

• recombination

• codominance

• independent assortment

​Type AB blood occurs when two equally dominant alleles (A and B) are inherited. Since they are both dominant, one does not mask the other; they are equally expressed.

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Incomplete dominance occurs when one gene is not completely dominant over another, resulting in a blending of two traits.​ Ex: red and white forming pink

Recombination is the process of chromosomes exchanging genetic information during meiosis.

Independent assortment refers to the notion that all genes divide independently of one another.​

Subject | Subject

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following is NOT true about epistasis?

• Epistasis results in a certain phenotype being hidden.

• Epistasis is an interaction between genes on two different loci.

• Epistasis is a dominant/recessive relationship between alleles.

• In epistasis, one gene is modified by another.

Epistasis​ differs from dominance because the two interacting genes are not alleles of the same gene at the same loci.

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Epistasis results in one gene masking the phenotypic expression of another gene. (Ex: the gene for baldness would mask hair color)

The genes interacting during epistasis are found on different chromosomal locations.

The modifier gene masks the trait of the other gene.​

Subject | Subject

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following is the inheritance of DNA that is contained outside of the nucleus?

• biparental inheritance

• organelle inheritance

• mitochondrial inheritance

• polygenic inheritance

Organelle​ inheritance refers to DNA that is replicated and passed on to offspring outside of the nucleus.

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​Biparental inheritance is when the offspring gets an allele from each parent, basic Mendelian genetics.

Mitochondrial inheritance refers to inheritance specifically from the mitochondria.

Polygenic inheritance refers to the process of many genes contributing to the expression of one particular trait.

Subject | Subject

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Genetic Variation

transduction, transformation, conjugation - processes that allow bacteria and archebacteria to exchange genetic information since they do not undergo sexual reproduction.

mutations

• nondisjunction

• duplication​

• deletion

• translocation

• inversion​

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Multiple Choice

Homologous chromosomes swap pieces of genetic information in which of the following processes?

• crossing over

• reproduction

• inheritance

• variation

Crossing over, recombination, happens during meiosis in eukaryotic cells.

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Genetic information is not swapped when cells fertilize and reproduce.

Inheritance is the process of receiving genes from parent organisms.

Variation is the result of crossing over but not​ the process itself.

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following is a type of ploidy in which the organism has half the normal number of chromosomes?

• euploid

• diploid

• monoploid

• polyploid

Monoploids have one set of chromosomes - half of the normal amount​.

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Euploids​ have normal amounts of chromosomes. (Eu = true)

Diploids​ have two sets of chromosomes, which is normal for most organisms.

Polyploids​ have multiple sets of chromosomes.

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Multiple Choice

Which term is indicative of gamete formed with a chromosome number of 2n + 1 following nondisjunction?

• monoploidy

• trisomy

• polyploidy

• monosomy

Trisomy results in a gamete forming with extra genetic material due to an additional chromosome (2n+1).

Ex: Trisomy 21 or Down's Syndrome

​​Monoploidy occurs when there is only one set of chromosomes with no homologous pairs ( n). Ex: gametes

Polyploidy occurs when there are more than two full sets of chromosomes, not just a single extra chromosome (3n, 4n, etc.)​

Ex: wheat​

​Monosomy occurs when a gamete is formed without one of its chromosomes (2n-1). Ex: Turner Syndrome - one X chromosome

Subject | Subject

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following types of chromosome structure changes can lead to a ring chromosome being formed?

• deletion

• translocation

• inversion

• duplication

When one or both​ end sections of a chromosome become deleted, it increases the likelihood that one end of the chromosome will attach to the other to form a ring.

Ring structures are unlikely to form on a chromosome that has experienced translocation, inversion, or duplication, unless it is accompanied by deletion on one end.

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Common Human Genetic Disorders

1. Cystic fibrosis

2. Huntington's disease

3. Sickle cell anemia

4. Muscular dystrophy

5. PKU

6. Tay-Sachs

7. Albinism

8. Polydactyly

9. Hemophilia

10. Red-green color blindness

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following is NOT an example of a genetic disorder that can be inherited through an X-linked recessive gene?

• red-green color blindness

• hemophilia

• PKU

• muscular dystrophy

PKU is an example of an autosomal recessive disorder.​

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Red-green color blindness​ arises from several gene mutations on the X chromosome.

Hemophilia is an example of a recessive X-linked disorder.

Different kinds of muscular dystrophy are inherited in different ways, including through X-linked genes.​

Subject | Subject

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following genetic disorders arises as a result of a mutation to the TYR gene, which produces melanin?

• muscular dystrophy

• albinism

• polydactyly

• Tay-Sachs

Albinism is a genetic condition in which the melanin-producing protein is inhibited, thus causing a lack of pigmentation. (Melanin is what gives the skin its pigmentation so albinism is the lack of pigmentation so use that type of knowledge to help select the best answer.)

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Muscular dystrophy arises from a defect to genes that produce dystrophin, which is a protein that repairs and builds muscle tissue.

Polydactyly is a result of a mutation to the GL13 gene, which is responsible​ for shaping embryonic material into patterns.

Tay-Sachs arises due to a mutation to the HEXA gene, which is responsible for producing enzymes that break down and remove toxic substances in nerve cells.​

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​Population Genetics

• gene flow

• migration - immigration and emigration

• genetic drift

• nonrandom mating

• sexual selection​

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Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

1. The population must be large in size and have no genetic drift.

2. The population must be isolated, with no immigration of native population members to another population or emigration of individuals from outside the population.

3. There are no genetic mutations within the population.

4. Mating is random, with no sexual selection.

5. There is no natural selection.

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Multiple Choice

What does the p variable refer to in the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation?

• the frequency of the recessive allele

• the frequency of the homozygous genotype

• the frequency of the heterozygous genotype

• the frequency of the dominant allele

The dominant allele is represented as p.

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The recessive allele is represented as q.

The two homozygous genotypes are represented as p² and q².

​The heterozygous genotype is represented as 2pq.

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Multiple Choice

Select the equation that determines allele frequency.

• p + q = 1

• p² + 2pq + q² = 1

• p² + q² = 100

• p + q = 100

The sum of the allele frequencies always equals 1.

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Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

p² + 2pq + q² = 1​

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​Mechanisms of Evolution

• Natural and artificial selection

• fitness

• differential reproduction

• intersexual selection

• selective breeding

• genetic drift - bottleneck effect, founder effect

• coevolution

• competitive exclusion principle​

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• ​adaptive radiation

• adaptations

• convergent evolution

• analogous structure​

• divergent evolution

• speciation

• gradualism

• punctuated equilibrium

• stasis​

Multiple Choice

Which is NOT a condition of natural selection?

• differential reproduction

• variation of inherited traits

• selective breeding

• overproduction of offspring

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Selective breeding is an action that results in artificial selection, not natural selection.

​Correct answer

1. inherited variation

2. overproduction of offspring

3. fitness to environment

4. differential reproduction

​Conditions of natural selection

Multiple Choice

A female peahen selecting a mate based on the peacock's bright, showy feathers is an example of what kind of natural selection?

• artificial selection

• differential reproduction

• intersexual selection

• selective breeding

This is an example of one gender of a species selecting a mate based on desired characteristics, which is the definition of intersexual selection.

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Artificial selection is controlled by humans, rather than b​y nature.

Differential reproduction occurs when all members of a population do not reproduce at equal rates.

Selective breeding leads to artificial selection and is the act of humans intentionally breeding two organisms with the same desirable traits.​

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Multiple Choice

Of the following mechanisms of evolutions, which can lead to a loss of genetic diversity?

• genetic drift

• natural selection

• adaptive radiation

• survival of the fittest

Random events lead to loss of population, which leads to loss of diversity in the gene pool.

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Natural selection requires a great variety of traits in a gene pool.

Adaptive radiation leads to greater genetic diversity.

Survival of the fittest is not a mechanism of evolution.​

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following is NOT an example of relationships between organisms acting as a driving force of coevolution?

• mutualism

• competition

• predator/prey

• founder effect

The founder effect is not a relationship between two species of organisms.

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Both species in a mutualistic relationship evolved in response to one another to the benefit of both.

​Competition can drive species to differentiate in order to survive.

Predators and prey evolve mechanisms to help them survive in this relationship.​

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Multiple Choice

The rapid speciation of thirteen species of Galapagos finches stemming from one original species is an example of which of the following mechanisms of evolution?

• adaptation

• morphological difference

• adaptive radiation

• artificial selection

Adaptive radiation is the rapid change in a gene pool of a species.

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An adaptation is a result of natural selection but is not a mechanism​ of evolution.

Adaptive radiation can lead to morphological differences, but the differences are not mechanisms of evolution.

Artificial selection is an evolutionary mechanism created by humans through selective breeding.​

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Multiple Choice

Divergent evolution can lead to which of the following among two or more populatons?

• common ancestors

• speciation

• analogous structures

• natural selection

Populations that diverge from one another can become a distinct species over time.

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Common ancestry is a prerequisite of divergent evolution.

Analogous structures result from convergent evolution.

Natural selection is the greater evolutionary mechanism that can lead to divergent evolution; thus speciation.​

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following types of evolution leads to analogous structures between two genetically distinct species?

• convergent evolution

• coevolution

• adaptive radiation

• divergent evolution

Convergent evolution leads to analogous structures between two genetically distinct species.

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Coevolution occurs as the result of an ecological relationship between two or more populations.

​Adaptive radiation is a type of evolution that stems from a common ancestor.

Divergent evolution leads to differentiation or speciation between populations with a common ancestor.​

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following are considered "missing links" between ancestral organisms and their descendants?

• inherited traits

• common ancestors

• analogous structures

• transitional fossils

Transitional fossils exhibit traits found in both ancestors and descendants.

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Inherited traits may be found in the "missing link," but the transitional fossil is considered the "missing link" itself.

Common ancestors are not examples of "missing links."

Analogous structures refer to structures that share similar features and functions.​

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​Speciation

• reproductive isolation

• pre-zygotic isolation

• habitat isolation

• behavioral isolation

• temporal isolation

• mechanical isolation

• gamete isolation

• post-zygotic isolation

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• ​hybrids

• hybrid infertility

• allotropic speciation

• peripatric speciation

• parapatric speciation

• sympatric speciation​

Multiple Choice

Which of the following is an example of post-zygotic isolation?

• mechanical isolation

• hybrid infertility isolation

• gamete isolation

• temporal isolation

Hybrid infertility isolation occurs after individuals from two species mate and form a zygote.​

​Mechanical isolation is an example of pre-zygotic isolation.

Gamete isolation is an example of pre-zygotic isolation.

Temporal isolation is an example of pre-zygotic isolation.​

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following mechanisms of reproductive isolation is caused by structural changes to the reproductive structures of two different species?

• mechanical

• temporal

• pre-zygotic

• post-zygotic

Species that are separated by mechanical isolation do not have compatible reproductive organs.

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Temporal isolation is caused by species that reproduce during different times of the year.

The answer does describe an example of pre-zygotic isolation; however, mechanical isolation is a better and more specific answer.

Post-zygotic isolation occurs after two species with compatible reproductive systems mate and form a gamete.​

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Multiple Choice

Select the evolution mechanisms plays a pivotal role in peripatric speciation?

• natural selection

• coevolution

• genetic drift

• convergent evolution

​Genetic drift plays a pivotal role in the rapid speciation of small populations of geographically isolated species, which is the definition of peripatric speciation.

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Natural selection does occur but is not the pivotal mechanism that drives peripatric evolution.

Coevolution describes two or more species that evolve in response to one another.

Convergent evolution describes two unrelated species evolving similar traits due to similar environmental pressures.​

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following is the distinguishing feature that separates parapatric speciation from allopatric speciation?

• lack of gene flow

• genetic mutation

• lack of physical barrier

• reproductive isolation

Allopatric speciation occurs when there is a physical barrier preventing inbreeding between populations; parapatric speciation occurs when there is a non-physical barrier.

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Gene flow slows or stops in both cases of speciation.

Genetic mutation​ could lead to differences in species but is not a distinguishing factor between parapatric speciation from allopatric speciation.

Reproductive isolation is a mechanism that occurs in both cases of speciation.​

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​The Evidence for Evolution

• Molecular evidence

• homology

• comparative anatomy

• embryology

• fossils​

• ​permineralization

• endosymbiosis​

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The Origin of Life

Panspermia - asteroid seeding

Miller-Urey​ experiment - chemical evolution or "abiogenesis"

self-replication

RNA world hypothesis

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following is an example of molecular evidence that all life evolved from a single common ancestor?

• the DNA code shared by all living things

• humans and roundworms share

  ing 70 percent of their DNA

• the dissimilarity of DNA sequences between humans and chimpanzees

• two types of mammals having homologous limbs

The DNA code shared by all living things is a major indicator that life stems from a common ancestor.

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Humans sharing 70% of their DNA with roundworms only indicates that the two have a common ancestor.

The opposite of the dissimilarity between humans and chimpanzees is true because the two species share the majority of their DNA.

Two types of mammals having homologous limbs is an example of structural evidence.​

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following is NOT considered a criterion of a homologous structure between two species?

• They share the same basic structure.

• They are attached to the body in the same way.

• They perform the same function.

• They develop in the same way during embryonic development.

Homologous structures can be adapted to perform different functions as a result of divergent evolution.

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Sharing the same basic structure indicated the structures are homologous.

Structures that are attached to the body in the same way indicate the structures are homologous.

The structures developing in the same way during embryonic development indicate the structures are homologies.​

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following acts as a marker for geologic time, which helps to accurately date fossils?

• permineralized fossils

• common ancestors

• law of superposition

• sedimentary rock strata

​The layers, or strata, of sedimentary rock serve as indicators of geologic time.

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Permineralized fossils is something that can be found in sedimentary rock strat but is not the marker of time.

Common ancestry can be determined by studying fossils that are dated according to their location in sedimentary rock strata.

​The law of superposition is used to interpret findings from different rock strata; however, this is a law and not a marker itself.

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Multiple Choice

Select the kingdom of organisms that does NOT contain the mitochondria organelle?

• bacteria

• fungi

• animal

• plant

Mitochondria descended from bacteria, but the current form is not found within bacterial cells.

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The rest are eukaryotic organisms that contain mitochondria within their cells.​

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Multiple Choice

Animals with bilateral symmetry tend to undergo which evolutionary trend as part of this process?

• multicellularity

• neuron development

• cephalization

• unicellularity

Animals with bilateral symmetry tend to form two identical halves with a head end, which is the end result of cephalization.

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These organisms have already developed multicellularity.

Neuron development is a prerequisite of the cephalization tend among bilateral animals.

Bila​teral organisms have more than one cell.

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Multiple Choice

According to the panspermia hypothesis, which of the following is a building block of life that could have originated from meteor impacts?

• diploid cells

• mitochondria

• amino acids

• alleles

Amino acids are organic molecules that are considered to be a building block of life and have been found on meteors that strike the earth.

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Diploid cells occur in advanced forms of life and are not considered part of the panspermia theory.

Mitochondria is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells and is not considered part of the panspermia theory.

Alleles are part of life, not a compound​ that leads to the development of life.

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Multiple Choice

The Miller-Urey experiment proved that ___

• organic compounds could arise from inorganic compounds.

• life evolved from abiotic material.

• amino acids are the only organic compounds necessary for life.

• inorganic compounds are the building blocks of life.

Miller and Urey's experiments created amino acids from a combination of inorganic material.

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This experience did not make the link between life and inorganic compounds.​

Amino acids are one of many types of organic compounds that are required for life.

Organic compounds, including proteins and nucleic acid, are the building blocks of life​

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Multiple Choice

Select the atmospheric gas that is correlated to the rapid increase in body size among organisms?

• carbon dioxide

• methane

• oxygen

• nitrogen

Oxygen was not present in the atmosphere when life first evolved, but is now makes up over 20 percent of the atmosphere's composition.

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Carbon dioxide was found in larger proportions when life first evolved but is now only found in trace amounts. It is not correlated with the body size of organisms.

Methane is found in trace amounts in the atmosphere but is not correlated with the body size of organisms.​

Nitrogen was found in large amounts both then and now and is not correlated with body size.​

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following organic compound is capable of both replicating genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions?

• DNA

• RNA

• proteins

• amino acids

RNA is capable of both.

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DNA is a replicating molecule but does not catalyze​ chemical reactions.

Proteins catalyze most of the chemical reactions responsible for life.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.​

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following is NOT an example of an environmental pressure that can lead to species extinction?

• lack of genetic diversity in a small population of fish

• destruction of a mountaintop due to volcanic eruption

• historic glaciation leading to destruction of tundra hanitat

• habitat fragmentation due to wildfire

Lack of genetic diversity in a small population of fish is a species-specific factor that can lead to extinction, not an environmental pressure.

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Destruction of a mountaintop by a volcanic eruption is an example of habitat destruction, which is an environmental pressure.​

Historic glaciation leading to the destruction of a tundra habitat is an example of historic climate change, which is an environmental pressure

Habitat fragmentation is an example of an environmental pressure.​

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Multiple Choice

A loss of biological function in a given area is an example of ___

• mass extinction.

• interspecific competition.

• climate change.

• habitat loss.

Habitat loss occurs when so many of the resources in a habitat are destroyed that a species can no longer function in that location.

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Mass extinctions are marked by a sharp decline in the total ​number of species across Earth during a short span of time.

Interspecific competition is a competition for resources between species in the same habitat.

Climate change is a slow, global process that does not necessarily lead to loss of biological function.​

Subject | Subject

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