CDS 302 Chapter 3

Articulation and Phonology in Speech Sound Disorders:

AClinical Focus

Chapter 3

Phonetic Transcription and Diacritics

CDS 302

Professor Minor

Learning
Objectives
Chapter 1

When you have finished this chapter, you should be
able to:

•Define communication, speech, and language.
•Define disorders of communication, speech, and language.
•Distinguish between articulation and speech sounds (phones),

phonology, and phonemes.

•Define speech sound disorder and understand its relationship to

articulation and phonological disorders.

•Classify speech sound disorders according to specific parameters

Learning Objectives - Chapter 2

When you have

finished this chapter,
you should be able to:

Define and classify
phonetics and the

branches of phonetics.

Briefly review the

anatomical-
physiological

foundations of speech

production.

List the differences in

production and function

of vowels versus

consonants.

Identify the descriptive

parameters used for

vowels of General

American English and
categorize the vowels

accordingly.

Identify the descriptive
parameters used for the
consonants of General
American English and
classify the consonants

accordingly.

Define coarticulation

and assimilation, and list

the different types of

assimilatory processes.

Identify the various

types of syllable

structures, including
phonotactic restraints
that might be noted in

children.

Learning
Objectives
Chapter 3

When you have finished this chapter, you should be able
to:

▪ Define phonetic transcription as a notational system.

▪ Explain the use and value of phonetic transcription

for speech-language therapists.

▪ Define diacritics.

▪ Identify the diacritics used to delineate consonant

sounds.

▪ Categorize the diacritics used to describe vowel

sounds.

▪ Characterize the diacritics used to mark stress,

duration, and syllable boundaries.

An Activity
American IPA Chart

Multiple Choice

Phonetic transcription systems

• were devised to document real speech events

• are useless when classifying speech events

• make zero sense when classifying speech sounds

• None of these

Phonetic
transcription
systems

▪ Phonetic transcription systems were devised to

document real speech events (p. 40). There is a
long history of attempts to develop phonetic
notation systems. One of these systems is the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) which
originated at the end of the 1800's. The IPA has
been revised several times, most recently in 2005. It
is important to realize that the IPA is a dynamic,
evolving system (pp. 48-49).

Multiple Select

IPA

• most widely accepted transcription in the world

• was first published in 1888 and was originally designed as an aid in teaching the exact pronunciation of foreign languages

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

▪ International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is the most widely accepted

transcription system in the world (pp. 48-49). (Note: This system was
largely attributed to Paul Passy who was the Secretary of the
International Phonetic Association. It was first published in 1888 and
was originally designed as an aid in teaching the exact pronunciation
of foreign languages.)

Broad transcription

▪ Broad transcription is a more general type of transcription based on

the phoneme system of a specific language. Each symbol represents
a phoneme (p. 48). Due to the fact that this system represents
phonemes, broad transcription is also referred to as phonemic
transcription (p. 48).

Narrow transcription

▪ Narrow transcription is a system based on recording as much

production detail as possible (p. 48). This notation uses both the
symbols of broad transcription as well as extra ones. These extra
symbols are added to give a specific phonetic value, in other words,
to exemplify explicit production features. This type of transcription is
also referred to as phonetic transcription to denote the inclusion of
phonetic production features (p. 48).

Poll

Phonetic transcription is

• a descriptive system

• a prescriptive system

• neither descriptive or prescriptive

• both prescriptive and descriptive

Phonetic transcription

▪ Phonetic transcription is a descriptive not a prescriptive system (p. 50).

The term descriptive implies that actual articulatory events are
described. All symbols used stand for a defined articulatory event. For
example, [b] stands for a voiced bilabial plosive. If there is not voicing
or if this articulation changes in any way, these variations must be
noted. It is not a prescriptive system in that "words" are not transcribed
in an invariable manner. For example, the word "tan" is often
produced and thus transcribed as [tӕn]. However, if someone says
[tɛn],which can be heard in Pittsburgh, ([ju hӕv ə naɪs tɛn]), then it
must be transcribed accordingly.

Phonetic transcription (cont.)

▪ There are many reasons why phonetic transcription should be used (p.

51). First and foremost, it is the basis for the assessment of individuals
with speech sound disorders. Although standardized speech
assessments are often used as a portion of the diagnostic process,
they are only as good as the transcription skills of the examiner.
Learning phonetic transcription is a skill; It not only is an indispensable
portion of the education of speech-language specialists, it is also a
means by which auditory perceptual competency is trained. As
practitioners become more trained in transcription, their perceptual
and discrimination proficiency for speech sounds becomes more fine-
tuned.

Open Ended

Why not use the letters of the American English orthography to represent sounds?

Multiple Choice

Diacritics are

• marks added to sound transcription symbols to give them particular phonetic value

• not used by SLPs to describe aberrant articulatory events

• used to signify similarities

• all are correct

Diacritics

▪ Diacritics are additional transcription marks which are added to

sound symbols to demonstrate a particular phonetic value, to denote
modifications of the original sound (pp. 51-52). When diacritics are
added, this is known as narrow transcription. Many of the diacritics
used in this text are from the IPA, however, due to the range of
speech aberrations practitioners encounter; often new diacritics must
be devised. Various revisions have attempted to correct some of
these problems. Recently specialized diacritics were developed to
specifically address the transcription of disordered speech. These
extensions to the IPA (extIPA) were published in 1990 and revised in
2015 (p. 52).

Multiple Choice

Dentalization

• is not a term used by SLPs

• happens when you need to visit a dentist

• is an articulatory variation when the tongue approaches the soft palate

• is an articulatory variation when the tongue approaches the upper incisors

Dentalization

▪ Dentalization refers to an articulatory variation in which the tongue

approaches the upper incisors (p. 53). It is only used with consonants
that are not normally articulated with this place of articulation.
Dentalized sounds are those produced with the tongue tip further
forward than is normally the case.

Multiple Choice

Palatalization

• only sounds for which the palate is not the place of articulation can be palatilized

• any sound can be palatilized

Palatalization

▪ Palatalization refers to an articulatory variation in which the tongue

approaches the palate (p. 53). This diacritic is only used for sounds in
which their articulation does not involve the palate, for example
dental or alveolar sounds. In this case, palatalized sounds are those
produced with the tongue tip further back than is normally the case.
Velar sounds, such as [k] and [g], can also be palatalized. In this case,
palatalization refers to a more forward placement of the articulators.
Palatalized [k] and [g] sounds may be produced if they are in a
phonetic context with [i], for example, in [kip]: The high-front vowel
placement can move the [k] production more anteriorly.

Multiple Choice

Velarization refers to

• a more anterior tongue placement in the direction of the velum for palatal sounds

• a more posterior tongue placement in the direction of the velum for palatal sounds

• a more lateral tongue placement in the direction of the velum for palatal sounds

• a more lowered tongue placement in the direction of the velum for palatal sounds

Velarization

▪ Velarization refers to an articulatory variation in which the tongue

approaches the velum (p. 53). A prominent example of a velarized
sound is the production of the so-called dark l-sound. See pages 306-
311 for additional information about the dark l-sound.

Lateralization

▪ Lateralization refers to an articulatory variation in which the airstream

is released laterally (pp. 53-54). There is one lateral sound in General
American English, [l]; for this sound the lateralization symbol would not
be used. Clinicians often encounter lateral [s] and [z] which are
considered misarticulations. The IPA symbols [ ɬ ] (voiceless) and [ɮ]
(voiced) lateral alveolar fricatives, are used to transcribe these sounds
(p. 54).

voice symbols

▪ There are two types of voice symbols: Partial devoicing (of voiced

consonants) and partial voicing (of voiceless consonants) (pp. 55-56).
Partial devoicing and voicing are perceptually difficult to discern.
There is a general tendency for partial devoicing at the end of words
or utterances. This can often be heard in standardized speech
assessments.

Aspiration

▪ Aspiration of plosives is marked by a small elevated [h] following the

consonant, for example [phit], for “Pete”(p. 56). Normal aspiration
usually remains unmarked. If a normally aspirated stop-plosive is not
aspirated, the diacritic [=] is placed following the consonant in
question, for example [p=a ], for pie. Edwards (2003) states that
voiceless plosives are aspirated at the beginning of words but not in
consonant clusters; word-final aspiration appears to be variable.
Kantner and West (1960) state that voiceless unaspirated plosives
occur in three contexts: 1) when a voiceless plosive is followed by a
voiced plosive as in “sit down” or “right door”, 2) initiating unstressed
syllables, for example “city”, “pretty”, and 3) directly linked with a
preceding [s] as in “stand”, “school”.

Nonaspiration

▪ Nonaspiration refers to a sound which is typically aspirated (in this

case, plosives) produced without this aspiration (p. 56). The diacritic
for unaspirated plosives is [=] which is placed after the symbol in
question. Therefore, [t=i] is the production of “tea” without the
aspiration of [t].

Unreleased

▪ Unreleased refers to a modification of plosives in which the

articulatory closure is maintained and not, as usual, released (pp. 57-
58). The symbol for this is ˺ placed following the consonant, for
example [tɑp ˺ ] indicates an unreleased [p]. Only plosives can be
unreleased.

Syllabic consonants

▪ Syllabic consonants are sonorant consonants or semivowels which

represent nuclei of syllables (p. 57). Syllabics are marked with a
straight line under the consonant in question, for example [lɪtl̩] for
“little”.

Labialized and nonlabialized

▪ Labialized and nonlabialized sound productions indicate consonants

normally produced without lip rounding which are now rounded
(labialized) as well as those consonants which are normally produced
with lip rounding which become unrounded (nonlabialized) (pp. 57-
58). The diacritic for a labialized production is a superscript “w”
placed to the right of the symbol; for nonlabialized productions a
double-sided arrow is placed under the symbol (see page 58 and the
clinical comments on pages 58-59). The consonant [ʃ] can be
nonlabialized while other consonants may become labialized
primarily due to the phonetic context in which they occur. Unrounded
consonants may become labialized when followed by, for example,
rounded vowels such as [u].

Derhotacization

▪ Derhotacization is the loss of r-coloring for the consonant [ɹ] and the

central vowels with r-coloring (p. 58). The central vowels with r-
coloring lose the rhotic symbol [˞], thus becoming [ə] or [ɜ]. Depending
on the production, a derhotacized [ɹ] may be transcribed as [ʋ]
which is a voiced labiodental approximant .

Rounding

▪ Rounding occurs when vowels which are typically not rounded are

produced with more lip rounding than is usual (p. 59). For example, [i]
is normally articulated with no lip rounding. If [i] were produced with
lip rounding then this would be a case of rounding. The rounding
symbol may be used with front vowels to denote that their
characteristic lip spreading has changed. See page 59 for examples
of the symbols.

Unrounding

▪ Unrounding is the opposite: vowels are produced with no rounding

which typically evidence lip rounding in their production (p. 59). The
symbol for unrounding can be used with back vowels which (with the
exception of [ɑ]) typically display some degree of lip rounding. See
page 59 for examples of the symbols

Raised

▪ Raised tongue position for vowels refers to an articulation in which the

tongue is somewhat elevated, in the direction of the next highest
vowel (pp. 58-59). A raised[ɪ], for example, will change in the
direction of [i] while still being identifiable as [ɪ]. A raised [ӕ] would be
noted as [ӕ̝] with a t-shaped arrow pointing upward.

Lowered

▪ Lowered tongue position refers to a vowel which is produced with the

tongue elevation somewhat lowered, perceptually in the direction of
the next lowered vowel on the quadrilateral (pp. 59-60). A lowered [i]
will attain certain [ɪ] like qualities but, again, still be perceived as an [i]
vowel. A lowered [i] would be transcribed as [i̞], with the t-shaped
arrow pointing downward.

Advanced

▪ Advanced tongue positions occur when the specific vowel

production is somewhat frontalized, positioned more anterior in the
mouth than is normally the case (p. 60). This is transcribed with a small
diacritic mark + placed under the vowel sign in question.

Retracted

▪ Retracted tongue positions occur when the vowel production is

somewhat further back in the mouth than is normally the case; the
tongue position is more posteriorly located (p. 60). The diacritic for a
retracted tongue position is a small – placed under the vowel in
question.

Nasality and denasality

▪ Nasality and denasality are also marked by diacritics (pp. 61-62).

Nasality symbolscan only be added to consonants and vowels
which are not generated with the velum in a lowered position, i.e.,
non-nasal sounds. In American English this consists of all consonants
and vowels except for the nasals. These diacritics are not typically
used unless the nasality is perceived as being excessive. The diacritic
for nasality is a tilde ~ placed above the symbol in question. The
diacritic for denasality is reserved for nasal consonants, [m], [n], and
[ŋ]. The diacritic consists of the tilde ~ with a line through it.

Primary and secondary stress

▪ Primary and secondary stress are commonly the only stress features

marked with diacritics (pp. 62-63). Primary stress is marked with a
superscript short straight line placed before the syllable while
secondary stress is indicated by a subscriptshort straight line in front of
the syllable in question. The word “away” would be transcribed with
primary and secondary stress as [ˌəˈweɪ].

Lengthening

▪ Lengthening of a sound is marked by one or two dots placed vertically

following the respective sound (p. 63). Two dots indicate a longer
duration than one dot.

Shortening

▪ Shortening of a sound uses a rounded u-type diacritic which is placed

above the sound in question. See page 63 for an example of the symbol.
Unlike lengthening, different degrees of shortening are not marked.

Syllable boundaries

▪ Syllable boundaries are marked by a period placed between the

syllables (p.63).

Additional Symbols

▪ There are several additional symbols which might prove helpful when

transcribing the speech of children with speech sound disorders. This
list is not meant to include all symbols which might be necessary.

glottal stop

▪ A glottal stop is produced when a closed glottis is suddenly released

after a build-up of subglottal air pressure (p. 63). The symbol [ʔ] indicates
such a stop production. Children with speech sound disorders may use
glottal stop substitutions.

Bilabial fricatives

▪ Bilabial fricatives can also be seen as sound substitutions in aberrant

productions. The symbol [ ɸ] represents the voiceless bilabial fricative
while [β] denotes the voiced bilabial fricative (p. 64).

Palatal fricatives

▪ Palatal fricatives are produced with the tongue in a more posterior

position than [ʃ] or [ʒ] and may be heard as substitutions for these sounds
(p. 64). The IPA symbol for the voiceless palatal is [ç]; the voiced is
transcribed as [ʝ].

Postdorsal-velar fricatives

▪ Postdorsal-velar fricatives may be produced by children who are

attempting to articulate [k] and [g] but do not elevate the tongue enough
to create complete closure between the articulators (p. 64). The voiceless
velar fricative is transcribed as [x]; its voiced counterpart is noted as [ɣ].

Postdorsal-uvular stops

▪ Postdorsal-uvular stops are another possible misarticulation of [k] and

[g]. Relative to [k] and [g], the place of articulation is more posterior for
the uvular plosives (p. 64). The voiceless and voiced uvular plosives are
transcribed as [q] and [ɢ].

flap, tap, or one-tap trill

▪ The flap, tap, or one-tap trill, [ɾ], is a frequent allophonic variation of [t]

and [d] in words where these plosives are preceded and followed by
vowels, as in “city”, “butter”, or “ladder”(p. 64). It is produced by a
single tap of the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge.