Mussolini on the Road to Power

Mussolini on the Road to Power

The elections had given Mussolini what he wanted: an air of respectability and a foothold in parliament. He had no wish to be absorbed into Liberalism, to be a junior partner in a coalition, as Giolitti had intended. Consequently, he announced that the Fascists would not, after all, support Giolitti’s government.

Mussolini now saw the possibility of achieving real power. He had no master-plan but he was an extremely astute politician. He knew that he needed to demonstrate to the Italian public, to industrialists, landowners and the middle classes in particular, that Liberalism was finished as a political movement. Unstable, short-lived governments unable to maintain law and order or deal with the country’s economic problems would provide proof of this. He also had to convince these crucial groups in society that only Fascism could stop the Socialists and restore order and discipline to Italian society. Furthermore, he realised that for Fascism to become acceptable to the middle classes and conservatives it must either abandon or play down any remaining ideas about radical economic and social reform. During 1921 and 1922 Mussolini skilfully took advantage of his opportunities to create such an impression.

Open Ended

Can you summarize the key areas of weakness within Italy that Mussolini was planning on leveraging to his benefit? If you can't then the headings from the rest of this lesson will give you the answer. Make sure you take note of them.

Open Ended

Do you remember any examples of "radical economic and social reform" that were a part of the Fascist program from 1919-1921 that would have been necessary for him to drop to appease the conservatives?

​Government instability

• Governments following the elections of May 1921 were unstable. Giolitti did manage to form a coalition without Mussolini but it collapsed within a month.

• The Popolari had withdrawn its support when Giolitti proposed to introduce a tax which would have had the side-effect of hitting the Vatican’s financial investments. Without the tacit support of this Catholic Party, with its 107 deputies in parliament, it was now virtually impossible for any government to survive, yet the Popolari were suspicious of the anti-clerical traditions of Liberalism and was willing to destroy any government that offended it.

• To make matters worse, the Liberals were divided among themselves. Liberalism was still plagued by factions centred on prominent politicians, notably Giolitti, Salandra, Facta and Orlando, and these leaders actively disliked one another. In such circumstances it was not surprising that the three Italian governments between May 1921 and October 1922 were fragile and unable to introduce the decisive measures needed to cope with the industrial disruption and the collapse of law and order.

​Collapse of law and order

• The progressive collapse of law and order owed a great deal to Fascist actions.

• Squadrismo continued through 1921. Socialists were attacked, and not infrequently killed.

• Fascist violence even extended to parliament itself, most notoriously on the occasion when a Socialist deputy was beaten up on the floor of the chamber.

​Mussolini increases his control over the Fascist movement

• Mussolini’s activities during the remainder of 1921 were directed towards making Fascism a cohesive political force that could command more widespread support within Italian society.

• His attempt to organise Fascism more effectively resulted in the establishment of the National Fascist Party in October 1921.

• Fascism was no longer just a movement, but a recognised political party. In the following month the party congress formally accepted Mussolini as the leader of Fascism.

• The party was to be organised and run by men from Mussolini’s own Milan faction, who were loyal to their leader. Mussolini had established more control over those Fascist squads that had so terrorised Socialists in the agricultural areas of Emilia and the Romagna. However, his control over this provincial Fascism was by no means total, and there would be disagreements over the means to secure power. Yet he could now pose as the unchallenged head of a real political party.

​Reassuring the Catholic Church and conservative Italians

• In November 1921 Mussolini made a direct attempt to win over Catholics.

• He declared Fascism to be opposed to divorce, in agreement with the Popolari, that the peasants deserved a better deal, and he prepared to settle the Roman question on terms acceptable to the Pope.

• Mussolini also increased his efforts to appeal to conservatives – people who feared Socialism, deplored the government’s conciliatory policy towards labour, and questioned its ability to restore order. He dropped the left-wing policies espoused by Fascism in 1919.

• In fact, the leader of Fascism had begun to distance himself from such radical ideas during 1920, and it had not been coincidental that the 35 Fascist deputies elected in May 1921 were on the right of the movement.

• From 1921 Mussolini’s speeches concentrated on what Fascism was against, namely Socialism and Liberalism, but spelled out Fascist policies only in very broad terms, stressing its patriotism and commitment to strong government.

• An example of one of his speeches from this time:

• Mussolini, September 1921, to the City of Udine

"Our programme is simple: we wish to govern Italy. We must have a State which will simply say: ‘The State does not represent a party, it represents the nation as a whole, it includes all, is over all, protects all.’ This is the State that must arise from the Italy of Vittorio Veneto. A State which is not like the Liberal State ... a State which does not fall under the power of the Socialists. ... We [also] want to remove from the State all its economic attributes. We have had enough of the State railwayman, the State postman and the State insurance official. We have had enough of the State administration at the expense of Italian taxpayers, which has done nothing but aggravate the exhausted financial condition of the country. [The new state will] still control the police, who protect honest men from the attacks of thieves ... [and] the army that must guarantee the inviolability of the country and foreign policy." 

• Such speeches were quite deliberate attempts to persuade the conservative classes that they had nothing to fear and much to gain from the victory of Fascism.

• They also reflected Fascism’s lack of specific, detailed policies. Mussolini wanted a strong, expansionist Italy, hated Socialism and democracy, and despised parliament, but he was principally concerned with winning power for himself and becoming dictator of Italy.

• Policy was completely subordinated to this end. In fact, it was advantageous to have little clear policy – no groups would be offended.

​Fascist violence

• Mussolini was concerned that the increasing Fascist violence, even if directed at Socialists, might go too far and provoke conservatives to demand that the authorities crush the Fascists and restore law and order. This was a real danger and it was clear to Mussolini that the police and army had the power to destroy his movement. That he managed to calm conservatives, yet avoid splits within his party was proof of his political skills.

• On the one hand he encouraged the squads to continue their campaign of violence and suggested that he agreed with their plans for a violent seizure of power. On the other hand, when talking to conservatives, he disassociated himself from the worst excesses of Fascist violence. He would suggest that the perpetrators were renegades whom he would discipline, but would also imply that only he could curb these excesses. If conservatives wanted to avoid a violent conflict with Fascism they should come to an accommodation with him. If they conceded some share of political power to Fascism, he would ensure that Fascism became a more respectable party.

• This dual policy was followed throughout 1922. In the spring Fascist squads rampaged through north-central Italy attacking Socialist town councils and trade union property.

• In May the town council of Bologna was actually driven out of office. During July

  street-fighting took place in most of the northern cities. During this time Mussolini talked to the various Liberal factions, stressing Fascist power but also suggesting that he was far from being a rabid revolutionary. He implied that he was interested in a parliamentary alliance that would bring the Fascists into government.

• In such circumstances the fragile government coalition lacked the political will to use the police to curb the violence of a party that might soon be joining them in office. In any case, the police were reluctant to intervene in the street- fighting – they had no love for the Socialists and in some areas they had even loaned weapons to the local Fascist squads.

​The General Strike, July 1922

• At the end of July the Socialist trade unions called a general strike in an attempt to force the government to act against the Fascists.

• Mussolini made brilliant use of this opportunity to demonstrate that the left was still a threat and that only Fascism could deal with it.

• As soon as the general strike was announced, he publicly declared that if the government did not stop the industrial action his Fascists would step in and do it for them.

• Almost as the strike began, Fascists took over the running of public transport and ensured that the postal system continued to function. If strikers protested they were beaten up.

• The general strike proved a fiasco for the left.

• It had been poorly organised, and only attracted partial support from the workers. Even in those cities where the strike call was obeyed, the Fascist action limited its effect.

• Within days the strike had collapsed, leaving the Socialists in disarray.

• Mussolini could present his Fascists as the sole defenders of law and order. This was a crucial development. The Fascists’ actions impressed the conservative middle classes, helping to convince them that Fascism could be trusted with a share in government.

• From this point on the question was not whether the Fascists would enter the government, but rather on what terms.

Open Ended

In this lesson, you have seen just how skillful Mussolini was at political maneuvering and opportunistic action. Please provide a final summary of Mussolini's actions from 1921-1922, which brought Fascism from an incoherent movement to a political force whose entry into power was becoming increasingly likely. This summary will serve as a valuable reference for your own notes and understanding.