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According to Freud, which concept explains persistent traits like smoking or overeating that arise when conflicts are unresolved in a stage?

• Erogenous zone

• Fixation

• Psychosocial crisis

• Virtue

In Erikson's framework, which pairing correctly matches the stage with its central crisis and associated virtue?

• Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust — Virtue: Hope

• Adolescence: Industry vs. Inferiority — Virtue: Competence

• Young Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation — Virtue: Care

• Old Age: Intimacy vs. Isolation — Virtue: Love

A toddler undergoing toilet training becomes obsessively clean and stingy later in life. Which stage and outcome best align with Freud's theory?

• Oral stage — dependency traits

• Anal stage — anal retentive fixation

• Phallic stage — Oedipus complex

• Latency stage — dormant sexual feelings

Which statement best captures a documented strength of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development?

• It provides precise, testable mechanisms for each stage.

• It emphasizes a comprehensive lifespan perspective including adulthood.

• It avoids considering social and cultural influences.

• It minimizes the importance of stage-specific conflicts.

In Piaget’s preoperational stage (approximately ages 2–7), which characteristic most directly explains why a child might fail to understand that water poured from a short, wide cup into a tall, thin glass is still the same amount?

• Object permanence

• Egocentrism

• Centration leading to lack of conservation

• Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

A middle school student begins to debate ethical dilemmas using variables and hypothetical situations, showing systematic testing of ideas. According to Piaget, which stage and capability are being demonstrated?

• Concrete operational; classification and seriation

• Formal operational; hypothetical-deductive reasoning

• Sensorimotor; object permanence

• Preoperational; symbolic play

Which statement best describes moral reasoning at the Preconventional Level in Kohlberg's theory?

• It is driven by adherence to universal ethical principles even when they conflict with laws.

• It is based primarily on self-interest and avoiding punishments or gaining rewards.

• It emphasizes maintaining social order by upholding laws and authority.

• It focuses on balancing individual rights with the needs of society through social contracts.

A teenager refuses to cheat on a test because it is important to follow rules and maintain order. Which specific stage does this illustrate?

• Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

• Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Friendship

• Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order

• Stage 6: Universal Principle

Which scenario best reflects Post-conventional moral reasoning as described by Kohlberg?

• A child shares a toy expecting the other child to share later.

• An adolescent behaves kindly to gain approval from peers and authority figures.

• An adult supports a law only when it promotes common good, prioritizing human rights and freedom.

• A person avoids stealing solely to prevent punishment.

Which limitation of Kohlberg’s theory points out that research conducted in a Western individualistic society may not be authentic or applicable in collectivist cultures?

• Overemphasis on moral reasoning

• Cultural bias

• Sampling error

• Stage irreversibility