Study Guide: Essentials of Psychology — Chapters 5, 6 & 7

Define thinking and give one example of convergent and one example of divergent thinking.

• Thinking is the manipulation of mental representations; convergent thinking aims at a single correct solution (e.g., choosing the best answer on a test), while divergent thinking generates multiple novel ideas (e.g., listing many uses for a paperclip).

• Thinking is daydreaming; convergent thinking is brainstorming many options, while divergent thinking narrows choices to one.

• Thinking is memorizing facts; convergent thinking is creating many solutions, while divergent thinking is finding the single correct answer.

• Thinking is automatic reflex; convergent thinking and divergent thinking are both about recalling stored facts.

Describe Chomsky’s view of language acquisition and contrast it with a behaviorist account.

• Chomsky proposed an innate language acquisition device and universal grammar that enable children to rapidly acquire language; behaviorists argued language is learned through conditioning, reinforcement, and imitation.

• Chomsky claimed language is entirely taught by parents through rewards; behaviorists believed grammar is inborn and unfolds without reinforcement.

• Chomsky argued language is purely a cultural invention learned by trial-and-error; behaviorists said language results from maturation of brain structures with no learning.

• Chomsky and behaviorists both asserted that vocabulary develops only through classical conditioning of reflexes.

In Pavlov’s experiment, identify the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. Explain extinction and spontaneous recovery with brief examples.

• Unconditioned stimulus: food; conditioned response: salivation to the bell; extinction: repeated bell without food reduces salivation; spontaneous recovery: salivation to the bell briefly returns after a rest period.

• Unconditioned stimulus: bell; conditioned response: salivation to food; extinction: presenting food without a bell reduces salivation; spontaneous recovery: the dog forgets the bell entirely.

• Unconditioned stimulus: salivation; conditioned response: the bell; extinction: removing the dog from the lab; spontaneous recovery: adding more food later.

• Unconditioned stimulus: light; conditioned response: wagging tail; extinction: giving treats increases the response; spontaneous recovery: response permanently disappears.

Explain positive vs. negative reinforcement and give one classroom example of each.

• Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., praise after correct answers); negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., stopping nagging when homework is turned in).

• Positive reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior; negative reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Positive reinforcement adds punishment for mistakes; negative reinforcement removes rewards when behavior occurs.

• Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement both decrease unwanted behaviors through penalties and fines.

Compare declarative and procedural memory; give an example of each.

• Declarative memory stores facts and events (e.g., knowing state capitals); procedural memory stores skills and habits (e.g., riding a bicycle).

• Declarative memory stores motor routines (e.g., typing); procedural memory stores personal episodes (e.g., birthday party).

• Declarative memory is unconscious skill learning; procedural memory is conscious recall of trivia.

• Declarative and procedural memory are identical and both concern factual knowledge only.

Define proactive interference and describe a study or classroom scenario illustrating it.

• Proactive interference occurs when old information disrupts learning or recall of new information (e.g., remembering last year’s locker combination makes it harder to learn the new combination).

• Proactive interference is when new learning helps recall older information (e.g., studying French improves memory for old Spanish words).

• Proactive interference is the temporary loss of all memories after a distraction (e.g., forgetting everything after a phone call).

• Proactive interference happens when emotional memories overwrite neutral ones (e.g., exciting events erase routine details).

List Sternberg’s three types of intelligence and provide a real-world task that matches each type.

• Analytical (solving logic or math problems), creative (designing a novel solution or story), practical (managing everyday tasks like planning a schedule or navigating a city).

• Analytical (artistic creativity), creative (memorizing definitions), practical (solving algebra proofs).

• Analytical (street smarts), creative (test taking), practical (inventing abstract theories).

• Analytical, interpersonal, and musical; matched with composing music, negotiating conflicts, and taking standardized tests.

According to the definitions provided, which term refers to representing or manipulating information?

• Thinking

• Concept

• Intelligence

• Memory

According to the definitions provided, what is a mental image?

• A grouping by common features

• A smallest sound unit

• A mental picture

• Capacity for purposeful action

According to the definitions provided, which term is defined as grouping by common features?

• Concept

• Thinking

• Intelligence

• Morpheme