The idea that all humans are born with rights, which include the right to life, liberty, and property

A policy designed to give special attention to or compensatory treatment for members of some previously disadvantaged group.

The legal process by which citizens of one country become citizens of another

Citizenship in more than one nation.

The right to renounce one's citizenship.

A policy designed to give special attention to or The right of women to vote.

14th amendment clause that prohibits states from denying equal protection under the law, and has been used to combat discrimination

14th amendment clause stating that no state may deprive a person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.

A standard developed by the courts to test the constitutionality of a law; when applied, a law is constitutional as long as it meets a reasonable government interest.

A standard applied by the courts when a classification is based on race; the government must show that there is a compelling reason for the law and no other less restrictive way to meet the interest.

This standard has been applied when a law classifies based on sex; to be upheld, the law must meet an important government interest

A test given to persons to prove they can read and write before being allowed to register to vote

A state primary election that restricts voting to whites only; outlawed by the Supreme Court in 1944.

A state primary election that restricts voting to whites only; A requirement that citizens pay a tax in order to register to vote

Drawing of legislative boundaries to give electoral advantages to a particular racial group. "Majority-minority" districts include large numbers of racial minorities in order to ensure minority representation in legislatures.

Laws designed to enforce segregation of blacks from whites

In the context of determining representative districts, the process by which a majority of the population is from the minority.

The clause in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations.

A case brought by someone to help him or her and all others who are similarly situated

A statement written into a property deed that restricts the use of the land in some way; often used to prohibit certain groups of people from buying property

Racial segregation that occurs because of laws or administrative decisions by public agencies.

Segregation resulting from economic or social conditions or personal choice.

A law that makes an act criminal although the act was legal when it was committed

14th amendment clause stating that no state may deprive a person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law

The process by which provisions of the Bill of Rights are brought within the scope of the Fourteenth Amendment and so applied to state and local governments.

Clause in the First Amendment that says the government may not establish an official religion.

A First Amendment provision that prohibits government from interfering with the practice of religion.

Advertisements and commercials for products and services; they receive less First Amendment protection, primarily to discourage false and misleading ads.

Interpretation of the First Amendment that holds that the government cannot interfere with speech unless the speech presents a clear and present danger that it will lead to evil or illegal acts.

Interpretation of the First Amendment that would permit legislatures to forbid speech encouraging people to engage in illegal action.

An interpretation of the First Amendment that holds that freedom of expression is so essential to democracy that governments should not punish people for what they say, only for what they do.

Government censorship of information before it is published or broadcast

A court-imposed requirement that government regulations of free expression not be based on the viewpoint being expressed or the identity of the speaker

Libel, obscenity, and fighting words, which are not entitled to constitutional protection in all circumstances

A written defamation of a person's character, reputation, business, or property rights.

Material that is so offensive that is not protected under the constitution

Words that by their very nature inflict injury on those to whom they are addressed or incite them to acts of violence

A form of political participation that reflects a conscious decision to break a law believed to be immoral and to suffer the consequences.

Power of a government to take private property for public use.

Government regulation of property so extensive that government is deemed to have taken the property by the power of eminent domain, for which it must compensate the property owners.

A court order allowing law enforcement officers to search a suspect's home or business and take specific items as evidence

The rights individuals or firms have to the exclusive use of their property, including the right to buy or sell it

Fair treatment through the normal judicial system, especially as a citizen's entitlement.

Constitutional requirement that governments proceed by proper methods; limits how government may exercise power.

Constitutional requirement that governments act reasonably and that the substance of the laws themselves be fair and reasonable; limits what a government may do.

A rule that provides that otherwise admissible evidence cannot be used in a criminal trial if it was the result of illegal police conduct

A jury of 12 to 23 persons who, in private, hear evidence presented by the government to determine whether persons shall be required to stand trial. If the jury believes there is sufficient evidence that a crime was committed, it issues an indictment.

A jury of 6 to 12 persons that determines guilt or innocence in a civil or criminal action.

A formal charge or accusation of a serious crime

Agreement between a prosecutor and a defendant that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser offense to avoid having to stand trial for a more serious offense.

Trial or punishment for the same crime by the same government; forbidden by the Constitution.

A judicial system in which the court of law is a neutral arena where two parties argue their differences.

A philosophy proposing that judges should strike down the actions of the elected branches only if they clearly violate the Constitution

A philosophy proposing that judges should freely strike down laws enacted by the democratically elected branches

The power of the court to review laws or governmental regulations to determine whether they are consistent with the U.S. Constitution or in a state court, the state constitution.

A dispute growing out of an actual case or controversy and that is capable of settlement by legal methods.

In a criminal action, the person or party accused of an offense.

The party instigating a civil lawsuit

A law that defines crimes against the public order.

A law that governs relationships between individuals and defines their legal rights.

The third-ranking member of the Department of Justice; responsible for handling representing the United States in cases before the U.S. Supreme Court.

The chief law enforcement officer in the United States and the head of the Department of Justice.

A government lawyer who tries criminal cases, often referred to as a district attorney or a U.S. Attorney.

Courts in which criminal and civil cases are originally tried in the federal judicial system

The court of last resort in the United States. It can hear appeals from federal circuit courts or state high courts.

The authority of a court to hear a case first, before any other court

The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts

A formal writ used to bring a case before the Supreme Court.

A court order requiring law enforement officers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody.